Southern Fulmar Fulmarus glacialoides Scientific name definitions

The Southern Fulmar forms a superspecies with the Northern Fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis) of the North Atlantic and North Pacific oceans. Smaller-billed and more contrasting above than that species, the Southern is also restricted entirely to the Southern Ocean. It breeds in large colonies on cliffs and steep, rocky slopes on Antarctic coasts and subantarctic islands. Non-breeders, mostly young birds, wander north to the Humboldt Current off Peru and waters off southern Brazil. They often gather in flocks and regularly attend trawlers and other ships.

46–50 cm; male 720–1180 g, female 720–1020 g (1 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ); wingspan 114–120 cm. Similar to previous species in overall appearance and flight action , plumage quite different from other Antarctic petrels. Adult has white to whitish-grey head  becoming plain grey over rest of upper body  , but often paler on uppertail-coverts , dark patch before eye usually small and can be inconspicuous; inner upperwing like back except variable partially darker outermost greater and median coverts, and contrastingly dark, outer upperwing with pale grey lesser and inner greater primary-coverts, otherwise mostly blackish grey including outer primaries and tips to outer webs of inner primaries, strongly contrasting with mostly whitish inner primaries ; underwing mostly white or whitish grey with narrow dark trailing edge and some blackish on leading edge on carpal area  ; tail pale grey above, white below  ; underparts white or whitish grey, the grey wash often more obvious on breast-sides; iris very dark; bill pale pink with black tip, blue-grey nostrils and base of maxilla; legs variably bluish grey and pink. Sexes alike, but female averages very slightly smaller than male in most measurements (1 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close , 2 Shirihai, H. (2007). A Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife. The Birds and Mammals of the Antarctic Continent and the Southern Ocean. Second edition. A. & C. Black, London, UK. Close ). Juvenile as adult, but is slightly and narrowly fringed paler above, especially on mantle and inner upperwing-coverts, and with wear may appear slightly patchy whitish grey above (2 Shirihai, H. (2007). A Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife. The Birds and Mammals of the Antarctic Continent and the Southern Ocean. Second edition. A. & C. Black, London, UK. Close ). Differs from wholly allopatric F. glacialis in longer, thinner bill, much strongly contrasting pattern on outer wing, and in lacking decidedly dark morph. Might also be confused with Pterodroma lessonii, but largely white underwing, patterned upperwing and pale bill offer good distinguishing marks.

Southern Ocean, breeding in Antarctica and on outlying islands, including Scotia Arc and N to Bouvet I.

Marine and pelagic , normally linked with cold waters (especially those of -1·5°C to 0·5°C) (1 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ) fringing pack ice, but rarely venturing into latter region. Breeds on usually N-facing (1 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ) steep rocky slopes and precipitous cliffs, and has been recorded well inland in Antarctica, e.g. in Dronning Maud Land (3 Steele, W.K. and Newton, I.P. (1995). New distributional and breeding records of birds in the Ahlmannryggen, Western Dronning Maud Land, Antarctica, 1991-1995. Marine Orn.. 23(1): 47–52. Close ).

Migratory, ranging widely over Southern Ocean, generally to c. 40° S (1 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). N of breeding areas, a regular visitor to South Georgia, May–Dec, but mainly in Oct–Dec (4 Prince, P. A., and J. P. Croxall (1996). The birds of South Georgia. Bulletin of the British Ornithologists’ Club 116(2):81–104. Close ), considered abundant around Kerguelen Is in austral winter (5 Genevois, F. and Chastel, O. (1991). An Antarctic Fulmar Fulmarus glacialoides feeding on land. Marine Orn.. 19(2): 136–138. Close ) and also regularly recorded around Macquarie I, although absent there between Dec and mid Apr (6 Clarke, R.H. and Schulz, M. (2005). Land-based observations of seabirds off sub-Antarctic Macquarie Island during 2002 and 2003. Marine Ornithology 33(1):7–17. Close ). Young birds commonly reach subtropical zone following cold-water currents, especially off W South America (N to Peru and perhaps even Ecuador) (1 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ), where sometimes recorded up to 70–100 km inland in S Chile (7 Marín, M. (2002). The occurrence of vagrant seabirds inland in Chile. Cotinga 17:62–65. Close ); elsewhere, occasionally straggles N to South Africa, Australia and New Zealand, with all three countries sometimes experiencing substantial ‘wrecks’ of the species (1 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ), as well as to SE Brazil (e.g., records in São Paulo state in Jan, Mar and Aug, and Rio de Janeiro in Sept) (8 Olmos, F., Martuscelli, P., Silva, R. and Neves, T.S. (1995). The sea-birds of São Paulo, southeastern Brazil. Bull. Brit. Orn. Club. 115(2): 117–128. Close , 9 Sick, H. (1997). Ornitologia Brasileira. Editora Nova Fronteira, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Close ), with one record from NE Brazil (Rio Grande do Norte) (9 Sick, H. (1997). Ornitologia Brasileira. Editora Nova Fronteira, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Close ).

Mostly crustaceans (Euphausia), fish (Pleuragramma antarcticum) and cephalopods (Psychroteuthis, Gonatus, Galiteuthis), with proportions varying locally; also carrion (exceptionally even on land) (5 Genevois, F. and Chastel, O. (1991). An Antarctic Fulmar Fulmarus glacialoides feeding on land. Marine Orn.. 19(2): 136–138. Close ) and fish offal. Compared to Thalassoica antarctica, traditionally considered to take more krill and fewer fish (10 Norman, F.I. and Ward, S.J. (1992). Foods and aspects of growth in the Antarctic Petrel and Southern Fulmar breeding at Hop Island, Rauer Group, East Antarctica. Emu. 92(4): 207–222. Close ), and to feed more inshore, but stable isotope studies indicate that the reverse is true (1 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Breeding studies suggest that most foraging trips during chick-rearing period are within 390 km of nest-site (1 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Most food  taken by surface-seizing; occasionally surface-dives. Often feeds in flocks  , sometimes with other seabirds (11 Silverman, E.D. and Veit, R.R. (2001). Associations among Antarctic seabirds in mixed-species feeding flocks. Ibis. 143(1): 51–62. Close ). Attends trawlers and takes galley refuse from ships , but apparently just one report of feeding association with cetaceans (involving Atlantic spotted dolphin Stenella frontalis) (12 Scherer, A.L., Souza Petersen, E., Habkost Schuh, M., Cristofoli, S.I., Mazzini Tavares, C.L., Duarte, A., Petry, M.V. and Sander, M. (2010). Interação entre aves marinhas (Procellariiformes) e golfinhos-pintados-do-atlântico Stenella frontalis (Cetacea: Delphinidae) em águas oceânicas do sudeste do Brasil. Rev. Bras. Orn. 18(3): 234–236. Close ).

The species’ various displays are accompanied by a rapid “kerk-kerk-kerk…” at rate of c. 6 notes/second, as well as cackling notes in courtship, and guttural and raucous ones in antagonistic encounters (1 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Generally silent at sea, unless competing over food, when utters shrill, rattling cackle notes (2 Shirihai, H. (2007). A Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife. The Birds and Mammals of the Antarctic Continent and the Southern Ocean. Second edition. A. & C. Black, London, UK. Close ).

Starts Nov, with main return to colonies in Oct, followed by apparently short (c. 4 days) and incomplete pre-laying exodus (13 Creuwels, J.C.S., van Franeker, J.A., Doust, S.J., Beinssen, A., Harding, B. and Hentschel, O. (2008). Breeding strategies of Antarctic Petrels Thalassoica antarctica and Southern Fulmars Fulmarus glacialoides in the high Antarctic and implications for reproductive success. Ibis. 150(1): 160–171. Close ), egg-laying period c. 15 days, usually during first two weeks of Dec, with hatching mainly between 21 Jan and 6 Feb (14 Norman, F.I., Whitehead, M.D., Ward, S.J. and Arnould, J.P.Y. (1992). Aspects of the breeding biology of Antarctic Petrels and Southern Fulmars in the Rauer Group, East Antarctica. Emu. 92(4): 193–206. Close ), and fledging typically in early Mar (1 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Natal philopatry perhaps limited, although further study highly desirable (1 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Monogamous and forms long-term pair-bonds (2 Shirihai, H. (2007). A Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife. The Birds and Mammals of the Antarctic Continent and the Southern Ocean. Second edition. A. & C. Black, London, UK. Close ). Highly colonial, sometimes within colonies of Thalassoica antarctica (which breed c. 16 days earlier) (13 Creuwels, J.C.S., van Franeker, J.A., Doust, S.J., Beinssen, A., Harding, B. and Hentschel, O. (2008). Breeding strategies of Antarctic Petrels Thalassoica antarctica and Southern Fulmars Fulmarus glacialoides in the high Antarctic and implications for reproductive success. Ibis. 150(1): 160–171. Close ) and one record of a pair of present species rearing chick of latter (15 Arnould, J.P.Y. (1990). A peculiar observation of nesting behaviour in the Southern Fulmar Fulmarus glacialoides. Emu. 90(1): 60–61. Close ); nests on sheltered ledges or in hollows, sometimes lined with small amounts of local debris (1 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Single white egg, size 70·9–79·1 mm × 41·9–53 mm, mass 81–123 g, with inexperienced breeders generally laying smaller and later-hatching eggs (1 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ); incubation c. 46 days, with approximately 11 stints (1 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ) each of 3–9 days, becoming shorter as incubation progresses (16 Weimerskirch, H. (1990). Weight loss of Antarctic Fulmars during incubation and chick brooding. Ibis. 132(1): 68-77. Close , 1 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ); chicks have whitish-grey down, whiter on head and neck, brooded for c. 3·5 weeks and thereafter fed on average every 14–30 hours, with chick on average consuming 71 g of krill and 148 g of fish per day (1 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close , 17 Creuwels, J.C.S., Engelhard, G.H., van Franeker, J.A., van der Veer, W., Hasperhoven, J.G. and Ruiterman, W. (2010). Foraging strategies of Antarctic fulmarine petrels. Marine Orn.. 38(1): 17–22. Close ); fledging 48–56 (mean 52) days at mean weight of 880 g (range 745–1045 g), but achieves peak mass of c. 1200 g at age 33 days (1 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Compared to Thalassoica antarctica, makes shorter and more frequent foraging trips during chick-rearing period (18 Creuwels, J.C.S., Engelhard, G.H. and van Franeker, J.A. (2005). Do different petrel species feed their chick differently? Alauda. 73(3): 234. Close ), and nest failure tends to occur on average later in the cycle (13 Creuwels, J.C.S., van Franeker, J.A., Doust, S.J., Beinssen, A., Harding, B. and Hentschel, O. (2008). Breeding strategies of Antarctic Petrels Thalassoica antarctica and Southern Fulmars Fulmarus glacialoides in the high Antarctic and implications for reproductive success. Ibis. 150(1): 160–171. Close ). Breeding success of 6–8-year-old birds estimated at 48%, but thereafter increases with age (and experience) to reach maximum of 87% at ages 18–20 years, at which point declines with reproductive senescence clearly established (19 Berman, M., Gaillard, J.-M. and Weimerskirch, H. (2009). Contrasted patterns of age-specific reproduction in long-lived seabirds. Proc. Royal Soc. London (Ser. B Biol. Sci.). 276: 375–382. Close ); inexperienced birds lay smaller eggs which hatched later dates and with lower success than those of experienced birds, with unsuccessful birds more prone to change mate than successful ones and birds more often fail to return to the colony to breed the next year after first breeding attempt than after several (20 Weimerskirch, H. (1990). The influence of age and experience on breeding performances of the Antarctic Fulmar, Fulmarus glacialoides. Journal of Animal Ecology. 59: 867-875. Close ). Natural predators include skuas (Catharacta), which will nest in close proximity to the present species and other fulmarine petrels (21 Norman, F.I. and Ward, S.J. (1999). Aspects of the ecology of South Polar Skuas Catharacta maccormicki at Hop Island, Rauer Group, East Antarctica. Emu. 99(3): 176–190. Close ), with South Polar Skuas (Catharacta maccormicki) apparently responsible for the majority of losses at some colonies (14 Norman, F.I., Whitehead, M.D., Ward, S.J. and Arnould, J.P.Y. (1992). Aspects of the breeding biology of Antarctic Petrels and Southern Fulmars in the Rauer Group, East Antarctica. Emu. 92(4): 193–206. Close ). Mean age of first breeding 8·5 years (range 6–13 years), with mean annual adult survival estimated at 92% (22 Jenouvrier, S., Barbraud, C., Cazelles, B. and Weimerskirch, H. (2005). Modelling population dynamics of seabirds: importance of the effects of climate fluctuations on breeding proportions. Oikos. 108(3): 511–522. Close ) to 93·1%, it being reduced in years characterized by high sea surface temperatures and low concentrations of sea ice (23 Jenouvrier, S., Barbraud, C. and Weimerskirch, H. (2003). Effects of climate variability on the temporal population dynamics of southern fulmars. Journal of Animal Ecology. 72: 576–587. Close ). Only 38% of first-time breeders return to colony in following season, as opposed to 72% of experienced birds (1 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ); however, high temporal fluctuations in the proportion of breeders (0·57 ± 0·22) and breeding success (0·70 ± 0·14) have been observed (22 Jenouvrier, S., Barbraud, C., Cazelles, B. and Weimerskirch, H. (2005). Modelling population dynamics of seabirds: importance of the effects of climate fluctuations on breeding proportions. Oikos. 108(3): 511–522. Close ).

Not globally threatened (Least Concern). Total population large, perhaps in excess of 4,000,000 individuals, with very substantial colonies on South Sandwich Is (perhaps c. 1,000,000 pairs at nine sites), South Orkney Is (100,000–1,000,000 pairs at six sites) and elsewhere in Scotia Arc, e.g. 1000 pairs at three sites on Antarctic Peninsula, 71,000 pairs on Elephant I (1 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ); elsewhere, an estimated 29,000 pairs in East Antarctica (24 Baker, G. B., R. Gales, S. Hamilton, and V. Wilkinson (2002). Albatrosses and petrels in Australia: a review of their conservation and management. Emu 102(1):71–97. Close ) (with 6861 pairs between Cap Bienvenue and Moyes Is in 1997/98) (25 Barbraud, C., Delord, K.C., Micol, T. and Jouventin, P. (1999). First census of breeding seabirds between Cap Bienvenue (Terre Adélie) and Moyes Islands (King George V Land), Antarctica: new records for Antarctic seabird populations. Polar Biology. 21: 146–150. Close ), although up to 1,700,000 birds have been estimated to occur in Prydz Bay in summer, suggesting that the former total is too low, while smaller numbers also breed on Bouvetøya and Peter I Øy (3500 pairs) (1 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). No evidence of overall change in recent decades, although local increases have been reported, e.g. numbers on Ardery I, in Windmill Is, increased from c. 3000 pairs to 3860 pairs between 1984/85 and 1995/96 (26 Barbraud, C. and Baker, S.C. (1998). Fulmarine petrels and South Polar Skua Catharacta maccormicki populations on Ardery Island, Windmill Islands, Antarctica. Emu. 98(3): 234–236. Close ), and small population at Pointe Géologie, Terre Adélie, increased significantly between 1985 and 1999 (27 Micol, T. and Jouventin, P. (2001). Long-term population trends in seven Antarctic seabirds at Pointe Géologie (Terre Adélie): human impact compared with environmental change. Polar Biology. 24: 175–185. Close , 28 Woehler, E.J., Cooper, J., Croxall, J.P., Fraser, W.R., Kooyman, G.L., Miller, G.D., Nel, D.C., Patterson, D.L., Peter, H.-U., Ribic, C.A., Trivelpiece, W.Z. and Weimerskirch, H. (2001). A Statistical Assessment of the Status and Trends of Antarctic and Subantarctic Seabirds. Report on SCAR BBS Workshop on Southern Ocean seabird populations. Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research. Close ). Known from prehistoric material on Easter I, but no recent records there (29 Marin, M. and Cáceres, P. (2010). Sobre las aves de la Isla de Pascua. Boletín del Museo Nacional de Historia Natural (Chile). 59: 75–95. Close ). Main causes of mortality or reduced breeding success are related to adverse weather conditions, e.g. freezing or flooding of nest; also some natural predation, mainly by skuas (Catharacta) and sheathbills (Chionis). Competition with fisheries could pose threat in long term; some birds recorded as bycatch in commercial fisheries (e.g. off Patagonia) (30 Favero, M., Khatchikian, C.E., Arias, A., Silva Rodriguez, M.P., Cañete, G. and Mariano-Jelicich, R. (2003). Estimates of seabird by-catch along the Patagonian Shelf by Argentine longline fishing vessels, 1999–211106111061. Bird Conservation International. 13(4): 273–281. Close ), while organochlorines have recently been detected in this species (31 van den Brink, N.W. and de Ruiter-Dijkman, E.M. (1997). Trans-nonachlor, octachlorostyrene, mirex and photomirex in Antarctic seabirds. Antarctic Science. 9(4): 414–417. Close , 32 van den Brink, N.W., van Franeker, J.A. and de Ruiter-Dijkman, E.M. (1998). Fluctuating concentrations of organochlorine pollutants during a breeding season in two Antarctic seabirds: Adélie Penguin and Southern Fulmar. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 17(4): 702–709. Close ). Likely to be affected by future warming of the Southern Ocean, with steep declines projected for this and other southerly distributed species due to sea surface temperature warming and decrease in sea ice extent (33 Barbraud, C., Rivalan, P., Inchausti, P., Nevoux, M., Rolland, V. and Weimerskirch, H. (2011). Contrasted demographic responses facing future climate change in Southern Ocean seabirds. Journal of Animal Ecology. 80: 89–100. Close ); later-breeding for this (and other polar species) has already been reported (34 Barbraud, C. and Weimerskirch, H. (2006). Antarctic birds breed later in response to climate change. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 103(16): 6248–6251. Close ), with evidence of a shift in the cyclicity of the species’ dynamics linked to climate (35 Jenouvrier, S., Weimerskirch, H., Barbraud, C., Park, Y.-H. and Cazelles, B. (2005). Evidence of a shift in the cyclicity of Antarctic seabird dynamics linked to climate. Proc. Royal Soc. London (Ser. B Biol. Sci.). 272: 887–895. Close , 22 Jenouvrier, S., Barbraud, C., Cazelles, B. and Weimerskirch, H. (2005). Modelling population dynamics of seabirds: importance of the effects of climate fluctuations on breeding proportions. Oikos. 108(3): 511–522. Close ). For example, the rapid increase in ecosystem fluctuation, associated with increasing climate variability observed since 1990, has limited and rendered less predictable the supply of Antarctic krill, thereby increasing the fitness costs of breeding for females, causing significant short-term changes in population structure through mortality and low breeding output (36 Forcada, J., Trathan, P.N. and Murphy, E.J. (2008). Life history buffering in Antarctic mammals and birds against changing patterns of climate and environmental variation. Global Change Biology. 14: 2473–2488. Close ).