Nankeen Kestrel Falco cenchroides Scientific name definitions

28–35 cm (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ); male 121–195 g, female 115–273 g (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ); wingspan 66–78 cm. A typical small, slim kestrel, with long, relatively narrow and rounded wings and a longish rounded tail (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ); paler than most. At extreme distance might be confused with other small raptors that hover, but Elanus caeruleus, E. scriptus and E. axillaris are all easily distinguished by their much paler plumage and different morphology (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Wide geographical overlap with F. longipennis, which has very different shape and plumage, and brown-morph F. berigora, which is larger and much darker, and hovering action is quite different (much slower wingbeats) (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Female larger and heavier, though largest female only c. 16% bigger than smallest male (with seasonal variation, perhaps 20–70% heavier) (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ); typically has rufous head and tail, although some (apparently older) individuals may have these tracts washed with grey, and has more heavily dark-streaked crown, cheeks and underparts, and tail has nine black bands (often broken) in addition to subterminal band (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Bare parts: dark brown irides, yellow cere and eyering (duller in female and juvenile) and yellow legs (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Juvenile is very like female but often more rufous and more heavily streaked and spotted on upperparts, with better defined bars on tail and more broadly streaked, buffier underparts (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Males of New Guinea race baru have darker and more extensive grey head, darker grey tail, and are marginally larger (wing of male 254–262 mm versus 231–260 mm) (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ).

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Editor's Note: Additional distribution information for this taxon can be found in the 'Subspecies' article above. In the future we will develop a range-wide distribution article.

All lightly wooded and treeless terrestrial habitats, including open woodland, savanna, grassland, farmland, beaches and urban areas; from sea-level up to 2000 m in Australia, but at 3200–3800 m (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ) in New Guinea. Nests in trees, buildings, caves and cliffs.

Resident and partly migratory populations; many pairs sedentary in temperate regions. Longest ringing recovery is of 758 km, between Sydney and SE Queensland, but clearly capable of much longer movements (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Birds breeding at high latitudes and altitudes (at least in SE Australia) (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ) tend to winter in coastal and lowland areas (but New Guinea breeders apparently strictly sedentary) (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ); many migrate N to Cape York Peninsula and islands in Torres Strait (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ), some (mostly females) reaching S New Guinea (mainly in Apr–Oct) (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ) and Indonesia, W to Java and N to Moluccas (Apr and Aug–Sept) (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Populations on Norfolk and Lord Howe Is initially founded by vagrants, but colonization of Christmas I, in 1940s, was apparently ship-assisted (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Some southward migration also reported, with frequent records from Tasmania and the species is a vagrant to New Zealand with 15 records between 1889 and 1965, but then a minor invasion in 1969 (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Also irruptive movements to arid regions after good rains, with subsequent dispersal perhaps promoted by drought (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ), and to local plagues of prey species.

Mostly invertebrates, particularly large insects such as grasshoppers, beetles, moths, ants and crickets (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ), and other arthropods (centipedes and spiders) (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ); also small mammals (mice), birds  up to size of sparrow and starling (once recorded taking a dove, Spilopelia chinensis (2 Pacher, J. (2010). Nankeen Kestrel takes Spotted Dove. Australian Field Ornithology. 27(1): 35–37. Close ) ), and reptiles (mainly skinks), especially when breeding. Carrion apparently occasionally taken, once a Galah (Eolophus roseicapilla) (3 Lepschi, B.J. (1993). Food of some birds in eastern New South Wales: additions to Barker & Vestjens. Emu 93(3):195–199. Close ). On islands off Western Australia, reptiles (38%) and insects (39%) constituted most of the species' prey by volume, with small mammals and birds comprising 23% (4 Dickman, C.R., Daly, S.E.J. and Connell, G.W. (1991). Dietary relationships of the Barn Owl and Australian Kestrel on islands off the coast of Western Australia. Emu. 91(2): 69-72. Close ). On Christmas Island dominant prey item is the grasshopper Valanga irregularis, other prey including Cave Swiftlet (Collocalia linchi) and the skink Lygosoma bowringii (5 Schulz, M. and Lumsden, L. (2009). Diet of the Nankeen Kestrel Falco cenchroides on Christmas Island. Australian Field Ornithology. 26: 28–32. Close ).Forages by high quartering and hovering (up to 30 m above ground) (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ), or still-hunting from perch . Seizes prey on ground by dive or glide; hawks flying insects; rarely chases small birds, but sometimes catches these in flight (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ).

Especially noisy during breeding season, when commonest call is shrill "keek-keek-keek..." or "keekeekee..." given both perched or in flight, and much like analagous vocalization of many other kestrels; also, a high-pitched, tremulous scream by displaying male, during territorial chases or when bringing food to nest, a thin upslurred "keer, keer, keer" and clicking "tik tik tik", both of which are given by both sexes, in various contexts (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). The latter is used by female in nest and when urging male to hunt, by male delivering prey to female, during copulation and by female to stimulate young to beg for food (6 Jurisevic, M. A. (1998). Comparison of vocalisations of Australian falcons and Elanine kites. Emu 98(1):1–12. Close ). Trill ("keer") calls given in various contexts—sometimes for prolonged periods—apparently in appeasement, by juveniles seemingly when begging and also by adults during territorial displays and defence, by males approaching the nest with food and during copulation, and during food squabbles and passes (6 Jurisevic, M. A. (1998). Comparison of vocalisations of Australian falcons and Elanine kites. Emu 98(1):1–12. Close ).

Jun–Dec (especially Sept–Oct) (7 Olsen, P. D., and T. G. Marples (1993). Geographic variation in egg size, clutch size and date of laying of Australian raptors (Falconiformes and Strigiformes). Emu 93:167–179. Close ) in Australia, Jul in New Guinea. Solitary; semi-colonial in concentrated breeding habitat amid extensive hunting habitat. Aerial displays apparently similar to those of other kestrels (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Nests in variety of sites inaccessible to ground predators: from sink holes and mine shafts up to 3 m (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ) below ground, to tree hollows, old nests of other birds (especially crows or other raptors) (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ), cliffs and ledges on buildings and machinery, 2–31 m above ground (one study in Northern Territory recorded nest heights of 3·1–13·9 m) (8 Aumann, T. (2001). Breeding biology of raptors in the south-west of the Northern Territory, Australia. Emu 101:305–315. Close ). Nests in C Australia can be 200 m apart, exceptionally just 12 m, but pairs are usually spaced at a mean distance of 1·9 km (8 Aumann, T. (2001). Breeding biology of raptors in the south-west of the Northern Territory, Australia. Emu 101:305–315. Close ) and nests at 2·1 km intervals (9 Aumann, T. (2001). The structure of raptor assemblages in riparian environments in the south-west of the Northern Territory, Australia. Emu. 101(4): 293-304. Close ). Eggs laid on depression or scrape (20–50 cm wide) (8 Aumann, T. (2001). Breeding biology of raptors in the south-west of the Northern Territory, Australia. Emu 101:305–315. Close ), sometimes with a few scraps of bark for lining (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Usually 3–5 eggs (1–6), size 29·1–43 mm × 26·7–35·3 mm, with those laid in stick nests tending to be larger and those in SW Australia typically smaller (7 Olsen, P. D., and T. G. Marples (1993). Geographic variation in egg size, clutch size and date of laying of Australian raptors (Falconiformes and Strigiformes). Emu 93:167–179. Close ); incubation c. 26–29 days (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ), apparently solely by female and commencing in earnest once second egg is laid (10 Olsen, P. and Baker, G.B. (2001). Daytime incubation temperatures in nests of the Nankeen Kestrel, Falco cenchroides. Emu. 101(3): 255-258. Close ); chicks have white down; fledging 28–35 days (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ); post-fledging dependence up to three weeks. Nest success: one study 68% of attempts, hatching success 66% of eggs laid, fledging success 45% of eggs laid, 1·6 young fledged per attempt; in another, over three years, minimum hatching success was 44–81%, and fledging success 22–81%, with the number of young fledging per successful nest 1–3 (8 Aumann, T. (2001). Breeding biology of raptors in the south-west of the Northern Territory, Australia. Emu 101:305–315. Close ). At successful nests in Canberra region, eggs were incubated for c. 73% of time (10 Olsen, P. and Baker, G.B. (2001). Daytime incubation temperatures in nests of the Nankeen Kestrel, Falco cenchroides. Emu. 101(3): 255-258. Close ). Sexually mature and sometimes breeds at one year. A recent study found that large females mate assortatively with large males (11 Olsen, P., Barry, S., Baker, G.B., Mooney, N., Cam, G. and Cam, A. (1998). Assortative mating in falcons: do big females pair with big males? Journal of Avian Biology. 29(2): 197-200. Close ). Oldest ringed bird five years.

Not globally threatened (Least Concern). CITES II. Widespread and abundant throughout Australia, where population placed at 75,000–750,000 pairs (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ) and has increased in numbers; has benefited from agriculture, forest clearance (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ) and introduced prey; considered to be one of the country's two most abundant raptors (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Recorded densities include six birds in 1 km² to seven pairs in <60 km², with road counts in New South Wales of 0·2–0·32 birds/km (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ); breeding density in SW Northern Territory varied over three-year period, 0·3–1·2 breeding pairs/km² (8 Aumann, T. (2001). Breeding biology of raptors in the south-west of the Northern Territory, Australia. Emu 101:305–315. Close ). Has colonized several islands, including Lord Howe I, Norfolk I and Christmas I (Indian Ocean), and may be in process of colonizing New Zealand. Resident New Guinea population poorly known, but apparently biased towards females and numbers highly variable, from almost absent to widespread and numerous (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Eggshell thickness not significantly reduced by DDT (12 Olsen, P. D., P. Fuller, and T. G. Marples (1993). Pesticide-related eggshell thinning in Australian raptors. Emu 93:1–11. Close ); seldom shot.