Saker Falcon Falco cherrug Scientific name definitions

45–57 cm (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ); male 730–990 g, female 970–1300 g (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ); wingspan 97–126 cm (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Largish, powerful falcon with variable plumage; crown whitish to brown, streaked dark. Rather similar to slightly larger, stockier F. rusticolus, but generally browner, especially on upperparts ; larger and more heavily built than F. biarmicus and F. jugger. Juvenile generally darker and more heavily streaked  than adult. Orbital rings, cere, and feet yellow in adult, bluish-grey to grey in juvenile (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Considerable geographic variation in plumage, but not well known; probably includes some morphs; form "<em>altaicus</em>" variable, but generally larger, more heavily spotted below, and darker, more blackish brown above, sometimes with rufous barring.

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Closest to F. rusticolus; genetic data indicate that these two, along with F. biarmicus and F. jugger, form a group of closely related species (2 Nittinger, F., Haring, E., Pinsker, W., Wink, M. and Gamauf, A. (2005). Out of Africa? Phylogenetic relationships between Falco biarmicus and the other hierofalcons (Aves: Falconidae). Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research. 43(4): 321–331. Close ). Internal taxonomy very complicated and uncertain, especially with regard to populations of C Asia. Status of form altaicus controversial: has been considered a separate species, or a race of present species or of F. rusticolus, but often reckoned to be a morph of present species, or a hybrid between it and F. rusticolus now being swamped by back-crosses with F. c. milvipes; nevertheless, breeds significantly earlier than nearby populations of present species; currently included within milvipes; molecular analyses required. Described race progressus (EC Asia) apparently rather distinctive and may be valid, as perhaps may cyanopus (C & E Europe); form korelovi, very recently described from deserts E of Caspian Sea (replacing same authors’ aralocaspius, which is preoccupied), is here synonymized with coatesi, but further investigation desirable. Form saceroides, in the past sometimes considered a valid race, now thought to be intergrade (in SC Siberia) between W & E populations, but possibly an aberrant morph (identical individuals recorded also in W of species’ range). Four subspecies currently recognized.

Editor's Note: Additional distribution information for this taxon can be found in the 'Subspecies' article above. In the future we will develop a range-wide distribution article.

Favours arid and semi-arid habitats including grassland, steppe  with scattered trees, and even open woodland, often with abrupt rocky areas, cliffs and canyons (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Occurs from plains and foothills to mountains and high plateaux, up to 4700 m. Wider range of habitats outside breeding season, but also essentially in open areas; sometimes along coast, over marshes or near lakes; hunting area can be some distance from nest or roost.

Mainly migratory or partially migratory; sedentary or dispersive in S of breeding range. Only occurs in winter in N Pakistan (although recently reported as possible breeder (3 Mahmood, T., Hussain, R., Rais, M., Hussain, I. and Nadeem, M.S. (2012). Habitat analysis and population estimates of three falcon species, Red-headed Merlin (Falco chicquera), Common Kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) and Saker Falcon (Falco cherrug), inhabiting district Chakwal, Pakistan. Pakistan J. Zool.. 44(3): 787–798. Close ) ), Arabia, Africa (Sudan, Ethiopia, and N Kenya) and parts of Middle East and China. Recently confirmed nesting in N India (4 Sangha, H.S., Dhumal, S.S. and Ovalekar, S. (2014). The first breeding record of the Saker Falcon Falco cherrug milvipes for the Indian Subcontinent in Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir. Indian Birds. 9(5-6): 146–148. Close ). Leaves most areas of former USSR in Sept–Oct, although some pairs stay over winter, even in N regions, e.g. Khakasia; returns Mar–Apr; absence from warmer areas is shorter. Tends to migrate singly (5 Michev, T., Profirov, L., Nyagolov, K. and Dimitrov, M. (2011). The autumn migration of soaring birds at Bourgas Bay, Bulgaria. British Birds. 104(1): 16-37. Close ). Nestlings ringed in Hungary have been recovered in Greece, Malta and Libya; three Hungarian juveniles carrying satellite transmitters migrated to Sicily, Libya and Egypt (6 Prommer, M. and Bagyura, J. (2009). Dangerous journeys of Sakers of the Carpathian basin. Pp. 765-776 in: Sielicki, J. & Mizera, T. (2009). Close ). Three captive-raised juveniles that were hacked in E Austria and fitted with satellite transmitters dispersed from the hacking site when 62–65 days old; one wintered in Sicily 1300 km distant, one was killed by an automobile in late Jul after moving E to Ukraine and then N to Poland some 700 km from the hacking site, and one flew S to Slovenia, then NE through Hungary to Slovakia, then N to NE Czech Republic, where her transmitter stopped working in mid-Jul (7 Gamauf, A. and Dosedel, R. (2012). Satellite telemetry of Saker Falcons (Falco cherrug) in Austria: juvenile dispersal at the westernmost distribution limit of the species. Aquila. 119: 65-78. Close ).

Mainly small mammals, particularly rodents and lagomorphs. In many areas susliks (Spermophilus) predominate; also gerbils, jerboas, hamsters, voles, lemmings and other rodents; young marmots and pikas in mountainous areas. Birds generally less important, mainly medium-sized and ground-dwelling birds, especially sandgrouse, galliforms (partridges, quails, pheasants), corvids, pigeons and larks; lizards (e.g. Uromastix) locally important; Coleoptera also reported. Diet of nesting birds in Kazakhstan (n = 181 prey items) comprised of 73% mammals (58% Spermophilus), 26% birds (mostly galliforms and corvids), 1% reptiles (8 Watson, M. and Clarke, R. (2000). Saker Falcon diet: the implications of habitat change. British Birds. 93(3): 136–143. Close ). Stoops on birds in air, but most prey caught on ground; watches for prey from vantage points, where may perch for hours. Also performs low foraging flights, looking for prey on ground; occasionally hovers. Breeding pairs sometimes hunt cooperatively (9 Eakle, W.L., Miller, C., Mineau, P. and Világosi, J. (2004). An example of cooperative hunting by Saker Falcons in Hungary. Journal of Raptor Research. 38(3): 292-293. Close ).

Generally silent, except around the nest. Main call is a loud hoarse-sounding “kyak-kyak-kyak...” or “kek-kek-kek...”, which is gruffer than the vocalizations of F. peregrinus. Also a single drawn-out “keeeik” (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ).

Laying in Apr–May. Nests on cliff ledges and crags; also nests in tall trees , particularly in W of range, occupying abandoned nests of other raptors , corvids or other birds; locally has switched from trees to pylons ; unusual nests found in Mongolia include atop abandoned buildings, on bridge ledges (two within 2 m of the ground), the floor of a 2-m-tall cistern within a demolished well house, on a truck tire mounted on a pole, and even on the ground (10 Ellis, D.H., Ellis, M.H. and Tsengeg, P. (1997). Remarkable Saker Falcon (Falco cherrug) breeding records for Mongolia. Journal of Raptor Research. 31(3): 234-240. Close , 11 Ellis, D. H., T. Craig, E. Craig, S. Postupalsky, C. T. LaRue, R. W. Nelson, D. W. Anderson, C. J. Henny, J. Watson, B. A. Millsap, J. W. Dawson, K. L. Cole, E. M. Martin, A. Margalida, and P. Kung (2009). Unusual raptor nests around the world. Journal of Raptor Research 43(3): 175–198. Close ). Readily uses artificial nests in areas where natural nesting substrates are scarce (12 Rahman, M.L., Purev-Ochir, G., Etheridge, M., Batbayar, N. and Dixon, A. (2014). The potential use of artificial nests for the management and sustainable utilization of Saker Falcons (Falco cherrug). Journal of Ornithology. 155(3): 649-656. Close ). Reuses same nest or changes nests from year to year. Normally 3–5 eggs (2–6); size range 50·9–66·2 mm × 32·5–47·2 mm (13 Gombobaatar, S. and Monks, E.M. (2011). Mongolian Red List of Birds. National University of Mongolia and Mongolian Ornithological Society, Ulaanbaatar. Close ); may lay replacement clutch after failure early in incubation; incubation period c. 30 days, mainly by female; male brings most of food, and female does not hunt until second half of nestling period; chicks have yellowish-white first down , greyish-white second down; fledging  at 45–50 days old. In study of patagial-tagged and radio-tagged young in Mongolia, post-fledging dependency lasted 31–52 days (14 Rahman, M.L., Batbayar, N., Purev-Ochir, G., Etheridge, M., and Dixon, A. (2015). Influence of nesting location on movements and survival of juvenile Saker Falcons Falco cherrug during the post-fledging dependence period. Ardeola. 62(1): 125-138. Close ). Sexual maturity at 2–3 years, unusually at 1 year. Using DNA fingerprinting of nestlings from 32 broods in Kazakhstan from 1993–1997, annual survivorship of adults was at least 82% (15 Wink, M., Staudter, H., Bragin, Y., Pfeffer, R. and Kenward, R. (1999). The use of DNA fingerprinting to estimate annual survival rates in the Saker Falcon (Falco cherrug). Journal of Ornithology. 140(4): 481-489. Close ).

ENDANGERED. CITES II. Despite apparent rarity, world population calculated to number c. 6400–15,400 breeding pairs based on summation of national counts BirdLife International (2014) Species factsheet: Falco cherrug. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 21/12/2014. . Numbers and population trends not well known, particularly over extensive Asian breeding range, where bulk of population occurs; migrant populations in Asia may be declining, whilst resident populations perhaps stable or increasing. A relatively high density, c. 0·5 breeding pairs/100 km^², has been found on the alpine grasslands of the Qinghai-Tibetan plateau, China, suggesting a total breeding population in this biogeographic region of several thousand pairs. Overall population trend is estimated to be negative BirdLife International (2014) Species factsheet: Falco cherrug. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 21/12/2014. . In first half of 20th century was locally abundant in both European and Asian sectors of USSR; in some areas of SC Siberia, relatively high densities of 5–7 pairs/100 km². Formerly more abundant in SE Europe: following fairly steady decline, moderate recovery in 1980s, particularly in Hungary, as result of protection efforts. Estimates of European populations include: 270–345 pairs in Ukraine (2003–2005); c. 10–20 pairs in European Russia (2003–2004); 8–15 pairs in Moldova (2005); 2–12 pairs in Romania (2006); 0–10 pairs in Bulgaria (2006); 5–10 pairs in Croatia (2002); 52–64 pairs in Serbia (1997–2002); 176–190 pairs in Hungary (2005; only 20 pairs in 1960s); 10–15 pairs in Czech Republic (2005–2006); 23–25 pairs in Slovakia (2004); 15–25 pairs in Austria (2004); and 5–70 pairs in Turkey (2001) (16 Dixon, A. (2007). Saker Falcon breeding population estimates. Part 1: Europe Falco. 29: 4-12. Close ). Most recent European estimates, from BirdLife International in 2015, posit a decline from 10 years previously to only 350–500 pairs, including 220–245 pairs in Hungary, 45–80 in Ukraine, 20–45 in Slovakia, 22–32 in Serbia, 20–26 in Austria, and 8–15 in Czech Republic. Estimates of larger Asian populations include 1000–5000 pairs in China (2010), 800–1450 pairs in Kazakhstan (2011), 2000–5000 pairs in Mongolia (2009) and 1854–2542 birds in Russia (2007) (17 Dixon, A. (2009). Saker Falcon breeding population estimates. Part 2: Asia Falco. 33: 4-10. Close ) BirdLife International (2014) Species factsheet: Falco cherrug. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 21/12/2014. . In Europe, main threat is loss and degradation of steppes and dry grasslands through agricultural intensification, plantation establishment and declines in sheep pastoralism. In Kazakhstan, nesting success lower in taller vegetation where nomadic herders no longer graze and availability of susliks has declined as a result (8 Watson, M. and Clarke, R. (2000). Saker Falcon diet: the implications of habitat change. British Birds. 93(3): 136–143. Close ). Also in Kazakhstan, electrocution of birds hunting from pylons a major threat (18 McGregor, R. (2001). Saker Falcons in northeast Kazakhstan: a new threat? British Birds. 94(4): 206-207. Close ). “Mass mortality” reported in Mongolia after DDT-laced grain put out to combat high densities of voles (19 Potapov, E. (2002). Mass poisoning of cranes and raptors. Bulletin of the Oriental Bird Club 36: 42. Close ). Highly sought after by falconers, particularly in Arabia; resultant excessive trade has caused local extinctions through capture of birds, particularly females, and theft of chicks. Trapping for falconers in Middle East has been estimated at 4000 in Saudi Arabia, 1000 in Qatar and 500-1000 in each of Bahrain, Kuwait and U.A.E., which, allowing for a 5% mortality in transit, suggests an annual off-take of 6825–8400 birds BirdLife International (2014) Species factsheet: Falco cherrug. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 21/12/2014. . Other estimates are much lower: only a couple of dozen per year.