Maleo Macrocephalon maleo Scientific name definitions

55 cm; male 1365–1622 g, female 1430–1758 g (1 Jones, D. N., R. W. R. J. Dekker, and C. S. Roselaar (1995). The Megapodes. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Unmistakable, very large, black-and-white bird with medium-length tail; stout, pale bill and bare, yellowish facial skin. Prominent dark bony casque . Salmon-pink wash on lower breast and belly of variable intensity; thighs black, but sometimes obscured by belly feathers. Female slightly smaller than male and has paler underparts (1 Jones, D. N., R. W. R. J. Dekker, and C. S. Roselaar (1995). The Megapodes. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Juvenile has largely brownish, pale-looking head with short blackish-brown crest, and rather browner upperparts (1 Jones, D. N., R. W. R. J. Dekker, and C. S. Roselaar (1995). The Megapodes. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Iris dark brown to dark red, orbital ring orange-yellow to orange-red (male) or yellow to orange-yellow (female), with rest of bare skin on side of head yellow to bluish yellow (male) or pale olive to greenish yellow (female), bill largely reddish orange on maxilla and grey-blue over mandible (much darker in young), and legs pale blue to dark blue (1 Jones, D. N., R. W. R. J. Dekker, and C. S. Roselaar (1995). The Megapodes. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Immature (plumage acquired when c. 8 months old) has much blacker head, but has white throat and chin, blackish tufty crest, and lacks yellow facial skin (1 Jones, D. N., R. W. R. J. Dekker, and C. S. Roselaar (1995). The Megapodes. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ).

N, C & SE Sulawesi, and Butung I (off SE coast). Populations, probably introduced, formerly occurred off NE Sulawesi on Lembeh and perhaps Bangka, and also on several of Sangihe Is.

Lowland and hill forest , with records up to 1375 m (2 Riley, J., and J. Mole (2001). The birds of Gunung Ambang Nature Reserve, North Sulawesi, Indonesia. Forktail 17:57–66. Close ); descends to breed on beaches along coast or in forest clearings with sandy substrate; sometimes breeds on beaches backed by mangroves. Roosts in trees, sometimes high off ground (3 Wardill, J.C., Fox, P.S., Hoare, D.J., Marthy, W. and Anggraini, K. (1998). Birds of the Rawa Aopa Watumohai NP, southeast Sulawesi. Kukila 10: 91-114. Close ). Recently found laying eggs in black sand along shores of lakes. Of 85 laying sites known historically by 1992, 48 were on coast and 37 inland.

Presumably mostly sedentary, although adults apparently not faithful to their hatching site (4 Argeloo, M. (1992). Problems of Maleo on Sulawesi. Dutch Birding. 14(2): 54-55. Close ). One female resighted 25 km from laying site where originally marked, 5 years later (5 Argeloo, M. (1994). The Maleo Macrocephalon maleo: new information on the distribution and status of Sulawesi's endemic megapode. Bird Conservation International. 4(4): 383-393. Close ).

Known to feed on fallen fruits (e.g. Pangium edule) (1 Jones, D. N., R. W. R. J. Dekker, and C. S. Roselaar (1995). The Megapodes. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ) and seeds (1 Jones, D. N., R. W. R. J. Dekker, and C. S. Roselaar (1995). The Megapodes. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ), insects and invertebrates (beetles, ants, termites and freshwater and land snails all reported) (1 Jones, D. N., R. W. R. J. Dekker, and C. S. Roselaar (1995). The Megapodes. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). No further information available.

Several different vocalisations, including extraordinary loud braying, a series of disyllabic rolls, and, in disputes, a duck-like quacking. Braying calls  given close to nesting grounds possess somewhat surreal quality.

Laying throughout year, with peak Oct–Apr in N Sulawesi; eggs May–Jul and Nov–Jan in SE Sulawesi, where freshly dug burrows also seen Sept (3 Wardill, J.C., Fox, P.S., Hoare, D.J., Marthy, W. and Anggraini, K. (1998). Birds of the Rawa Aopa Watumohai NP, southeast Sulawesi. Kukila 10: 91-114. Close ). Apparently monogamous, maintaining pair-bond throughout year and perhaps for life (1 Jones, D. N., R. W. R. J. Dekker, and C. S. Roselaar (1995). The Megapodes. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Communal burrow nester, using geothermal sites and also solar-heated beaches; pairs arrive in evening, lay next morning and then leave (5 Argeloo, M. (1994). The Maleo Macrocephalon maleo: new information on the distribution and status of Sulawesi's endemic megapode. Bird Conservation International. 4(4): 383-393. Close ), but female occasionally lays in afternoon (1 Jones, D. N., R. W. R. J. Dekker, and C. S. Roselaar (1995). The Megapodes. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Copulation occurs away from burrows (1 Jones, D. N., R. W. R. J. Dekker, and C. S. Roselaar (1995). The Megapodes. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Burrows up to 300 cm wide, and often over 100 cm deep, with up to 490 burrows at a single site and up to 22 pairs visiting a single site during the course of a day in peak nesting season (5 Argeloo, M. (1994). The Maleo Macrocephalon maleo: new information on the distribution and status of Sulawesi's endemic megapode. Bird Conservation International. 4(4): 383-393. Close ); eggs typically buried 10–100 cm (1 Jones, D. N., R. W. R. J. Dekker, and C. S. Roselaar (1995). The Megapodes. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ) below surface; incubation 62–85 days (1 Jones, D. N., R. W. R. J. Dekker, and C. S. Roselaar (1995). The Megapodes. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ), in soil temperature of 32°–39°C. Each female may regularly lay 10 eggs per year (5 Argeloo, M. (1994). The Maleo Macrocephalon maleo: new information on the distribution and status of Sulawesi's endemic megapode. Bird Conservation International. 4(4): 383-393. Close ), but perhaps sometimes up to 30 (1 Jones, D. N., R. W. R. J. Dekker, and C. S. Roselaar (1995). The Megapodes. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Eggs pale reddish buff to pinkish brown (1 Jones, D. N., R. W. R. J. Dekker, and C. S. Roselaar (1995). The Megapodes. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Further data from captive birds: eggs laid at intervals of 14–29 days; incubation averages 79 days (62–85); weight of chick drops considerably in first c. 10 days after hatching , then increases rapidly; horny cephalon on crown appears at c. 6 months, and is fully grown at c. 18–22 months; sexual maturity probably at 20–24 months. Predation of burrows by humans, pigs, monitor lizards and, in past, crocodiles. Known to live to at least 23 years old in captivity.

ENDANGERED. CITES I. Mace Lande: Vulnerable/Endangered. Total population probably numbers only 8000–14,000 individuals, and is declining, with a total of 131 nesting-sites identified (not all of them now active, see below) (6 Gorog, A.J., Pamungkas, B. and Lee, R.J. (2005). Nesting ground abandonment by the maleo (Macrocephalon maleo) in North Sulawesi: identifying conservation priorities for Indonesia’s endemic megapode. Biological Conservation. 126: 548–555. Close ). Recently (early to mid 1990s) confirmed to occur on Buton I, off SE Sulawesi (7 Prawiradilaga, D.M. (1997). The Maleo Macrocephalon maleo on Buton. Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club 117(3): 237. Close ). Main body of population on Minahasa Peninsula (N Sulawesi): estimate from 1970s gave 3000 adults using 13 known breeding grounds; in mid 1980s, estimated 150–200 pairs each at Tambun and Tumokang in Dumoga Bone National Park , where nine further laying sites known (also present in Gunung Ambang Nature Reserve in same region) (2 Riley, J., and J. Mole (2001). The birds of Gunung Ambang Nature Reserve, North Sulawesi, Indonesia. Forktail 17:57–66. Close ); by 1991 population at former had increased slightly. Some colonies were exterminated during 1980s; several colonies recently discovered in C Sulawesi, but some threatened by habitat loss to agricultural development (e.g. coconut plantations) (4 Argeloo, M. (1992). Problems of Maleo on Sulawesi. Dutch Birding. 14(2): 54-55. Close ) in association with transmigration, and two already being exploited, one for 40 years; new sites also found in S Sulawesi in 1989/90, but some already being exploited by villagers. In 1990/91, total of 43 (4 Argeloo, M. (1992). Problems of Maleo on Sulawesi. Dutch Birding. 14(2): 54-55. Close ) sites surveyed, of which 25 previously unrecorded; most sites already abandoned or severely threatened by excessive egg collecting, often by unauthorized persons. In 1992, total number of sites known 85, of which 22 abandoned, 51 active, and 12 unknown; 19 of the 22 sites abandoned were coastal; all but one or two of active sites severely threatened (5 Argeloo, M. (1994). The Maleo Macrocephalon maleo: new information on the distribution and status of Sulawesi's endemic megapode. Bird Conservation International. 4(4): 383-393. Close ). Further losses were reported during next survey, in 2003/04, with the authors of this study reporting ongoing egg collecting at all surveyed localities, except one, and degradation and other problems at several sites, suggesting to them that more sites were likely to be abandoned in the near future (6 Gorog, A.J., Pamungkas, B. and Lee, R.J. (2005). Nesting ground abandonment by the maleo (Macrocephalon maleo) in North Sulawesi: identifying conservation priorities for Indonesia’s endemic megapode. Biological Conservation. 126: 548–555. Close ). Largest known concentrations at Bakiriang (E Sulawesi) in early 1980s, with up to 100 birds recorded on single morning; this site subsequently thought to have been abandoned, due to habitat disturbance and destruction, but birds returned by mid 1991, and c. 40 seen together in Dec 1991; conservation initiatives here include artificial hatchery and protection of breeding grounds; colony may well manage to survive, and may be suitable as site for ecotourism. Throughout range, egg collecting carried out by villagers, in many cases on excessive scale; intensive illegal egg collecting by workers of rattan company (5 Argeloo, M. (1994). The Maleo Macrocephalon maleo: new information on the distribution and status of Sulawesi's endemic megapode. Bird Conservation International. 4(4): 383-393. Close ), illegally working in protected forest of Dumoga Bone National Park; habitat loss and fragmentation, over-exploitation of eggs and general human population pressure all increasing; some predation by village dogs and hunting by people (8 Baker, G.C. and Butchart, S.H.M. (2000). Threats to the maleo Macrocephalon maleo and recommendations for its conservation. Oryx. 34(4): 255–261. Close ). Species is subject of major conservation project, with backing of BirdLife International, WWF, PHPA (Indonesian Nature Conservation Department) and University of Amsterdam; tasks include surveys of old and new sites and major public awareness campaign. Survey work should be continued and augmented; many populations require active management, with involvement of local people, and public campaigns of environmental education; preservation and management of habitat also necessary; more artificial hatcheries should be developed. Species protected by Indonesian law. Successfully bred in captivity at New York Zoological Society’s Wildlife Survival Center (Georgia, USA) in 1988 and 1990.