Crested Francolin Ortygornis sephaena Scientific name definitions

30–35 cm; male 270–417 g, female 220–375 g (1 Urban, E. K., C. H. Fry, and S. Keith, Editors (1986). The Birds of Africa. Volume 2. Academic Press, London, UK. Close , 2 van Niekerk, J.H. (2003). Seasonal variation in body mass in adult Crested Francolin, Francolinus sephaena. Ostrich. 74(3–4): 236. Close ). Chestnut blotching on neck and breast, black bill, red legs, white supercilium and dark brown crown distinctive ; running bird often cocks tail and raises crown feathers. Female slightly smaller (by c. 15% in mass) (2 van Niekerk, J.H. (2003). Seasonal variation in body mass in adult Crested Francolin, Francolinus sephaena. Ostrich. 74(3–4): 236. Close ), with upperparts more densely barred and narrower shaft streaks; unspurred (male has single spur ) (3 Madge, S., and P. McGowan (2002). Pheasants, Partridges and Grouse, including Buttonquails, Sandgrouse and Allies. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Juvenile similar to female but paler and has broader shaft streaking over upperparts (3 Madge, S., and P. McGowan (2002). Pheasants, Partridges and Grouse, including Buttonquails, Sandgrouse and Allies. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Considerable variation, both individually and geographically, mostly in size and underparts coloration; five races generally considered to form two groups, of which nominate group (including zambesiae and grantii) has the posterior underparts finely and indistinctly vermiculated, while the rovuma group (including spilogaster) has streaked underparts, the streaking becoming heavier further S (3 Madge, S., and P. McGowan (2002). Pheasants, Partridges and Grouse, including Buttonquails, Sandgrouse and Allies. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Race <em>zambesiae</em> has underparts less strongly marked than in nominate <em>sephaena</em> , with richer reddish-brown upperparts but crown and nape paler (some evidence that the two races intergrade in SW Zambia) (4 Dowsett, R. J., D. R. Aspinwall, and F. Dowsett-Lemaire (2008). The Birds of Zambia. Tauraco Press & Aves, Liège, Belgium. Close ); race <em>grantii</em> is smaller with weaker breast markings than others in nominate group; race rovuma has blotching and streaking extending over most of underparts; and race <em>spilogaster</em> is larger than the last-named with finer underparts streaking (3 Madge, S., and P. McGowan (2002). Pheasants, Partridges and Grouse, including Buttonquails, Sandgrouse and Allies. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ).

Editor's Note: This article requires further editing work to merge existing content into the appropriate Subspecies sections. Please bear with us while this update takes place.

Editor's Note: Additional distribution information for this taxon can be found in the 'Subspecies' article above. In the future we will develop a range-wide distribution article.

Variety of brushland habitats with sparse ground cover including dense bushes along rivers, Acacia/Commiphora woodland, Baikiaea forest (4 Dowsett, R. J., D. R. Aspinwall, and F. Dowsett-Lemaire (2008). The Birds of Zambia. Tauraco Press & Aves, Liège, Belgium. Close ), forest edge and overgrown cultivation; in Malawi inhabits much smaller patches of thicket than Pternistis hildebrandti (11 Dowsett-Lemaire, F. (2006). A Contribution to the Ornithology of Malawi. Tauraco Research Report 8. Tauraco Press, Liège, Belgium. Close ). In some areas can be found far from water, although often considered predictor of nearby water source; recorded up to 2200 m in Somalia, but mainly found below 1500 m over rest of range (3 Madge, S., and P. McGowan (2002). Pheasants, Partridges and Grouse, including Buttonquails, Sandgrouse and Allies. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ).

Sedentary. Escapes by running in areas with little vegetation, but will flee mammalian predator by flying up into bush or tree; flight very fast, but not usually far.

Termites, other insects and their larvae (c. 32% by volume in E African study) (1 Urban, E. K., C. H. Fry, and S. Keith, Editors (1986). The Birds of Africa. Volume 2. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ), sedge bulbs (c. 16%) (1 Urban, E. K., C. H. Fry, and S. Keith, Editors (1986). The Birds of Africa. Volume 2. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ) seeds (mainly Commelina sp.) (1 Urban, E. K., C. H. Fry, and S. Keith, Editors (1986). The Birds of Africa. Volume 2. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ) and grasses (27%) (1 Urban, E. K., C. H. Fry, and S. Keith, Editors (1986). The Birds of Africa. Volume 2. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ), and a variety of other plant material; probably berries, molluscs and other food, as available. Seen foraging on elephant droppings, probably on dung beetles (1 Urban, E. K., C. H. Fry, and S. Keith, Editors (1986). The Birds of Africa. Volume 2. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ). Reported to feed on outskirts of towns and villages in Somalia, but generally forages in or near cover, mainly in early morning and evening, and observed in groups of up to ten individuals (3 Madge, S., and P. McGowan (2002). Pheasants, Partridges and Grouse, including Buttonquails, Sandgrouse and Allies. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ).

The loud cackling calls of Crested Francolin are a commonly heard sound in large parts of southern and eastern Africa. Unlike members of the genus Pternistis (also called Spurfowls), this species with a rather complex social behaviour has no male advertisement call. Instead, both male and female utter a duet as an indication they occupy a territory.

Vocal Development

A soft descending "preririp" has been described for juveniles when temporarily separated from their parents (frequency between 2 and 4kHz, duration c 0.4s). After the breeding season, young birds join loose groups of mainly males, and during chorus sessions (see below) get the opportunity to train vocal organs and duetting (12 van Niekerk, J.H. (2010). Vocal behaviour of Crested Francolin Dendroperdix sephaena in response to playback calls. Ostrich. 81(2): 149–154. Close ).

Vocal Array

The vocabulary of Crested Francolin has been studied in detail by Johann van Niekerk (12 van Niekerk, J.H. (2010). Vocal behaviour of Crested Francolin Dendroperdix sephaena in response to playback calls. Ostrich. 81(2): 149–154. Close ). We largely follow his categorization here.

Duet. An antiphonal call produced by male and female. Typically, one of the birds emits its call, after which the mate immediately falls in with its own part, and this continues for a while in an alternating way. Synchrony is not always perfect however. The duet can either be initiated by the male or the female. To the ear, it sounds like a very loud rhythmic short and harsh cackling phrase, which includes a higher-pitched emphasized note "kee-krirrek..kee-kirrek..kee-kirrek..". A full male-female note has a duration of c 0.5‒0.6s, while an entire duet phrase lasts c 3‒8s, amplitude is c 90dB. Duets are typically uttered by members of a pair, but has also been observed between unpaired birds (12 van Niekerk, J.H. (2010). Vocal behaviour of Crested Francolin Dendroperdix sephaena in response to playback calls. Ostrich. 81(2): 149–154. Close ).

Solo call. The same call of the female and the male bird which compose the duet, can also be heard separately. Typically, a series of such single notes is given, as in an attempt to get response from a potential mate. Despite extensive observation (12 van Niekerk, J.H. (2010). Vocal behaviour of Crested Francolin Dendroperdix sephaena in response to playback calls. Ostrich. 81(2): 149–154. Close ), it is not clear if male and female call can be identified purely based on sound properties, although the female call often is the higher-pitched one..

Ka-kirik. This is a more complex call uttered only by the male, but which is about identical to the full note of the duet. It can be given either singly or in fast series, in the latter case hardly different from a Duet.

Chorus. Similar to the Duet, but many birds participate, resulting in a harsh cacophonic cackling.

Grunt. A somewhat growling note "ghrarr", repeated several times with pauses of c 1s, uttered by the male.

Alarm call. A short call ending with a lower-pitched trilled part, repeated as long as the alarm situation is present with pauses of c 2s. The trilled end can also be absent. Uttered by either the male or the female.

Other. Soft mellow chuckling or chittering contact calls can often be heard between members of a pair or a group.

Geographic Variation

Many variations of the Duet exist, but it has not been studied yet if there are any significant differences among populations or races.

Phenology

Duets are mainly heard during the breeding season, but can be heard throughout the year. During observations in South-Africa, the duet changed from a non-breeding version in May to a clear, well-defined breeding version once pair-bonding took place. The pitch of male and female syllables became coordinated, syllables became shorter and the antiphonal pause became progressively longer (12 van Niekerk, J.H. (2010). Vocal behaviour of Crested Francolin Dendroperdix sephaena in response to playback calls. Ostrich. 81(2): 149–154. Close ). The Chorus is mainly heard outside the breeding season, when offspring becomes independent and forms loose groups with adult birds, as a stage prior to the next breeding season.

Daily Pattern of Vocalizing

Duets are mainly heard at dawn and early morning, and again from late afternoon until dusk. One pair duetting may entice several neighbouring pairs to also utter their duet, especially at dusk before roosting.

Places of Vocalizing

Most vocalizations are given from the ground.

Sex Differences

Male and female clearly have distinct vocalizations, and apparently only the alarm call and soft contact chuckles are shared. The male apparently has the larger repertoire.

Social Content and Presumed Functions of Vocalizations

The Duet is a cooperative call by a male and female to repel intruding francolins, especially single males during the breeding season, to advertise territorial boundaries at dusk and dawn, and to re-establish one another's location after a temporary period of silence in dense bush cover when they are separated. The similar-sounding Ka-kirik call uttered by single males is possibly used to advertise reproductive neutrality, in other words not calling females or with the aim to agitate males from established territories. Chorus is uttered by birds in loose bands after the breeding season (5‒8 young and old males with 1‒2 females nearby 12 van Niekerk, J.H. (2010). Vocal behaviour of Crested Francolin Dendroperdix sephaena in response to playback calls. Ostrich. 81(2): 149–154. Close ). This cacophony serves a.o. as an antipredator strategy (it was produced on four occasions when these groups were approached by Black-backed Jackal Canis mesomelas 12 van Niekerk, J.H. (2010). Vocal behaviour of Crested Francolin Dendroperdix sephaena in response to playback calls. Ostrich. 81(2): 149–154. Close ). Grunts are clearly a distress call, and can be heard during fighting between males or when a predator approaches. It seems to be an instinctive response without any communication function, as it is often uttered by a single bird. Alarm call is given either by the male or the female of a pair when a predator is present or when birds are flushed.

None documented.

Lays Oct–May (mainly Oct–Nov) (13 Tarboton, W. (2001). A Guide to the Nests and Eggs of Southern African Birds. Struik Publishers, Cape Town, South Africa. Close ) in South Africa; Dec–Mar in Zimbabwe (13 Tarboton, W. (2001). A Guide to the Nests and Eggs of Southern African Birds. Struik Publishers, Cape Town, South Africa. Close ); Jun–Jul in Mozambique but Nov in Malawi (11 Dowsett-Lemaire, F. (2006). A Contribution to the Ornithology of Malawi. Tauraco Research Report 8. Tauraco Press, Liège, Belgium. Close ); Oct–Mar (mainly Dec–Jan) in Zambia (4 Dowsett, R. J., D. R. Aspinwall, and F. Dowsett-Lemaire (2008). The Birds of Zambia. Tauraco Press & Aves, Liège, Belgium. Close ); Jan–Jun in Ethiopia (with fewer records in Jul–Oct and Dec) (14 Ash, J. S., and J. Atkins (2009). Birds of Ethiopia and Eritrea: An Atlas of Distribution. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ), and mainly May–May and Aug in Somalia (15 Ash, J. S., and J. E. Miskell (1998). Birds of Somalia. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ). Probably monogamous, as territorial and usually observed in pairs during breeding season (1 Urban, E. K., C. H. Fry, and S. Keith, Editors (1986). The Birds of Africa. Volume 2. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ). Nest is a hollow (10–17 cm wide and 6–10 cm deep) (13 Tarboton, W. (2001). A Guide to the Nests and Eggs of Southern African Birds. Struik Publishers, Cape Town, South Africa. Close ) lined with grass and leaves at base of cover, e.g. a sapling, a rock or in grass (13 Tarboton, W. (2001). A Guide to the Nests and Eggs of Southern African Birds. Struik Publishers, Cape Town, South Africa. Close ), well hidden. Usually 5–6 (13 Tarboton, W. (2001). A Guide to the Nests and Eggs of Southern African Birds. Struik Publishers, Cape Town, South Africa. Close ) pinkish-white to cream eggs speckled pale brown (3 Madge, S., and P. McGowan (2002). Pheasants, Partridges and Grouse, including Buttonquails, Sandgrouse and Allies. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ) (3–9) (13 Tarboton, W. (2001). A Guide to the Nests and Eggs of Southern African Birds. Struik Publishers, Cape Town, South Africa. Close ), size 37·1–43·2 mm × 28·8–32·4 mm (1 Urban, E. K., C. H. Fry, and S. Keith, Editors (1986). The Birds of Africa. Volume 2. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ); incubation c. 19–22 days, by female alone (13 Tarboton, W. (2001). A Guide to the Nests and Eggs of Southern African Birds. Struik Publishers, Cape Town, South Africa. Close ); downy chicks are rufous-brown, black and buff above, buffy white below, and are cared for by both sexes (13 Tarboton, W. (2001). A Guide to the Nests and Eggs of Southern African Birds. Struik Publishers, Cape Town, South Africa. Close ); able to fly short distances when only 25% of adult size, but fledging period unrecorded (13 Tarboton, W. (2001). A Guide to the Nests and Eggs of Southern African Birds. Struik Publishers, Cape Town, South Africa. Close ).

Not globally threatened (Least Concern). Mace Lande: safe. One of Africa’s most widespread francolins, occurring in suitable habitat throughout an area of nearly 3,350,000 km². Locally common to abundant and probably relatively stable throughout range, although considered to be declining outside of protected areas within comparatively small range in S Malawi (11 Dowsett-Lemaire, F. (2006). A Contribution to the Ornithology of Malawi. Tauraco Research Report 8. Tauraco Press, Liège, Belgium. Close ); no recent records from SE Uganda (16 Carswell, M., D. Pomeroy, J. Reynolds, and H. Tushabe (2005). The Bird Atlas of Uganda. British Ornithologists’ Club and British Ornithologists' Union, Oxford, UK. Close ); has apparently spread into W highlands of Ethiopia only since 1970s (14 Ash, J. S., and J. Atkins (2009). Birds of Ethiopia and Eritrea: An Atlas of Distribution. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ); probably most widespread and plentiful gamebird in Kenya ; considered common and widespread in Somalia (15 Ash, J. S., and J. E. Miskell (1998). Birds of Somalia. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ); uncommon in Kruger National Park, South Africa, in which country it also occurs in several other protected areas, e.g. Polokwane Game Reserve (8 Engelbrecht, D. and Grosel, J. (2007). First record of Crested Francolinus sephaena × Swainson’s Francolin F. swainsonii hybrids? Bull. African Bird Club. 14(2): 181-182. Close ) and Borakalalo National Park (12 van Niekerk, J.H. (2010). Vocal behaviour of Crested Francolin Dendroperdix sephaena in response to playback calls. Ostrich. 81(2): 149–154. Close ). No further information available on abundance. Not considered threatened anywhere, but habitat degradation and possibly conversion of savanna to agricultural land may affect the species; was considered to have declined in heavily populated Kisumu and in the coastal strip in Kenya in 1930s, as a result of habitat changes and shooting. Hunted in Zimbabwe, where shooting should be restricted to period Jul–Sept.