Silver Pheasant Lophura nycthemera Scientific name definitions

Length very variable with race. Nominate male 120–125 cm (tail 60–75 cm); female 70–71 cm (tail 24–32 cm). Race lewisi male c. 67 cm (tail c. 30–33·5 cm) (1 Eames, J.C., Steinheimer, F.D. and Bansok, R. (2002). A collection of birds from the Cardamom Mountains, Cambodia, including a new subspecies of Arborophila cambodiana. Forktail. 18: 67–86. Close ); female c. 61 cm (tail 23–25 cm). Mass (overall) male 1130–2000 g, female 950–1300 g (2 Sukumal, N. and Savini, T. (2009). Reticulated python predation on Silver Pheasant in Khao Yai National Park, Thailand. Int. Journal Galliform Conserv. 2: 25–27. Close ). Males generally unmistakable, but females in parts of Indochina might be confused with other, much rarer Lophura, which are generally smaller, with a shorter, blunter tail, much shorter crest, and blackish outer tail feathers (3 Madge, S., and P. McGowan (2002). Pheasants, Partridges and Grouse, including Buttonquails, Sandgrouse and Allies. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Male (most races) has strikingly contrasting white and bluish-black plumage; long crest, scarlet wattles and crimson legs. Female mostly reddish brown or dark brown with pale markings more or less obvious. Juvenile similar to adult female, being brown, finely vermiculated black above, and wing-coverts have narrow buff and black tips (3 Madge, S., and P. McGowan (2002). Pheasants, Partridges and Grouse, including Buttonquails, Sandgrouse and Allies. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ); first-year male has upperparts closely mottled buff and black, crest black, tail longer than that of female, with more prominent barring on outer rectrices, and underparts dull blackish marked with irregular whitish chevrons (3 Madge, S., and P. McGowan (2002). Pheasants, Partridges and Grouse, including Buttonquails, Sandgrouse and Allies. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ); male assumes full adult plumage in second year. Considerable variation in male plumage among races, mainly in extent of black markings on back, rump and tail; birds whitest and with longer tails towards NE: race occidentalis similar to ripponi, but has longer tail and female is quite different in having underparts mottled rich buff and dark brown, and has finely vermiculated, dark chestnut tail; race rufipes recalls engelbachi, but is larger and longer-tailed, and lacks white on neck-sides, while female is most like same sex of ripponi or occidentalis; race ripponi (sometimes taken to include jonesi) has full black crest and compared to berliozi has even whiter upperparts and much longer tail, while female is dark brown above, with dark chestnut tail, and dark brown to blackish underparts marked by pale buff or white chevrons; male of race <em>jonesi</em> probably has upperparts less white and central two rectrices are all white; male of race omeiensis is similar to that of nominate but has most rectrices, except central pair, extensively black-based, while female is overall dark brown with blackish lateral tail feathers; race rongjiangensis is reported to resemble both beaulieui and nominate; race beaulieui similar to ripponi and occidentalis, but shorter-tailed, and female is dark brown, with reticulated pattern over underparts and outer tail mottled and barred black, brown and white; male of nominate <em>nycthemera</em> is larger and whiter than all other forms ; race whiteheadi is similar to previous race in male plumage, but has bolder black markings on upperparts, very long tail, white white central rectrices and strongly barred lateral feathers, and female distinctive in having chestnut upperparts and short dark crest, with boldly patterned mantle and underparts, each feather having a white centre bordered black; race <em>fokiensis</em> is similar to beaulieui, but male has longer tail marked by vermiculations on basal half of inner webs, and female is dark olive-brown, often lightly peppered or vermiculated greyish white on underparts; male of race <em>berliozi</em> has whiter upperparts and longer tail than most other races in Indochina, with mantle and most neck (except foreneck) white, central tail mostly white (but sometimes vermiculated), and female like that of race beli, except that it is vermiculated white over belly and vent; race <em>beli</em> is like last-named, but male has white neckband broken on sides, white markings on upperparts finer and narrower, more arched tail with less white on central tail, while female is overall bright rufous-brown, especially on tail, with white-streaked underparts; race engelbachi similar to beli and annamensis, but male has narrower, irregular white neckband on sides and broader white markings on upperparts, while female has chestnut-brown upperparts, brightest on tail, and paler rufous underparts, which vary from virtually unmarked to streaked or peppered white; race lewisi darkest, with shortest tail, and both sexes are perhaps most similar to race crawfurdii of L. leucomelanos; and male of race <em>annamensis</em> has broader white neckband than engelbachi, with narrower, straighter tail, while female has relatively long crest, dull brown plumage with rufous tail, and pale shaft-streaks over mantle and underparts (3 Madge, S., and P. McGowan (2002). Pheasants, Partridges and Grouse, including Buttonquails, Sandgrouse and Allies. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ).

Editor's Note: This article requires further editing work to merge existing content into the appropriate Subspecies sections. Please bear with us while this update takes place.

Closely related to L. leucomelanos; the two were formerly placed together in genus Gennaeus, but genetic study found no evidence that Lophura as currently constituted is polyphyletic (4 Randi, E., V. Lucchini, A. Hennache, R. T. Kimball, E. L. Braun, and J. D. Ligon (2001). Evolution of the mitochondrial DNA control region and cytochrome b genes and the inference of phylogenetic relationships in the avian genus Lophura (Galliformes). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 19(2):187–201. Close ). Present species apparently hybridizes with L. leucomelanos at several localities E of R Irrawaddy (as well as on Victoria I, in SW Argentina, where both introduced very locally (5 Lever, C. (2005). Naturalised Birds of the World. T. & A. D. Poyser, London, UK. Close ) ) and it is possible that interbreeding with L. diardi is occurring in C Thailand (6 Savini, T. and Sukumal, N. (2009). Group structure and reproductive behaviour of Siamese fireback Lophura diardi and silver pheasant Lophura nycthemera at Khao Yai National Park, Thailand. Int. Journal Galliform Conserv. 1: 12–17. Close ). A separate molecular study indicated that these are two distinct species and that taxa lineata and crawfurdii, which have been considered part of present species (7 McGowan, P.J.K. and Panchen, A.L. (1994). Plumage variation and geographical distribution in the Kalij and Silver Pheasants. Bull. Brit. Orn. Club 114(2): 113–123. Close ), are better placed with L. leucomelanos; in same study two clades were identified within present species (nycthemera, berliozi and some samples of an unknown subspecies; and lewisi, annamensis and jonesi) (8 Moulin, S., Randi, E., Tabarroni, C. and Hennache, A. (2003). Mitochondrial DNA diversification among the subspecies of the Silver and Kalij Pheasants, Lophura nycthemera and L. leucomelanos, Phasianidae. Ibis 145(online): E1–E11. Close ). Geographical variation within present species exhibits two basic clines: individuals S of Irrawaddy delta have an increasingly disrupted pattern of alternating black and white V-marks becoming less distinct farther S, and individuals NE of delta become increasingly white to the N (though some traces of black always remain) (7 McGowan, P.J.K. and Panchen, A.L. (1994). Plumage variation and geographical distribution in the Kalij and Silver Pheasants. Bull. Brit. Orn. Club 114(2): 113–123. Close ). Many races considered to be of questionable validity, based on plumage patterns of male upperparts; seven races (rufipes, occidentalis, ripponi, jonesi, beaulieui, nycthemera and fokiensis), at least, form a cline and may not be subspecifically distinct from one another (7 McGowan, P.J.K. and Panchen, A.L. (1994). Plumage variation and geographical distribution in the Kalij and Silver Pheasants. Bull. Brit. Orn. Club 114(2): 113–123. Close ). Fifteen subspecies currently recognized.

• Edwards's x Silver Pheasant (hybrid) Lophura edwardsi x nycthemera

Editor's Note: Additional distribution information for this taxon can be found in the 'Subspecies' article above. In the future we will develop a range-wide distribution article.

Variety of primary and secondary (9 Thewlis, R. M., R. J. Timmins, T. D. Evans, and J. W. Duckworth (1998). The conservation status of birds in Laos: a review of key species. Bird Conservation International 8(Supplement):1–159. Close ) forested habitats (e.g. both broadleaf and pine-dominated areas in Laos) (9 Thewlis, R. M., R. J. Timmins, T. D. Evans, and J. W. Duckworth (1998). The conservation status of birds in Laos: a review of key species. Bird Conservation International 8(Supplement):1–159. Close ), in SE of range, mostly above 1000 m, but occurs down to 300 m (10 Pui Lok, C.B., Kwok Shing, L., Jianfeng, Z. and Wenba, S. (2005). Notable bird records from Bawangling National Nature Reserve, Hainan Island, China. Forktail 21: 33–41. Close ) (and perhaps 200 m) (11 Gao, Y. (1998). Conservation status of endemic Galliformes on Hainan Island, China. Bird Conservation International. 8(4): 411–416. Close ) on island of Hainan (China) and to 450 m (perhaps lower) in Laos (9 Thewlis, R. M., R. J. Timmins, T. D. Evans, and J. W. Duckworth (1998). The conservation status of birds in Laos: a review of key species. Bird Conservation International 8(Supplement):1–159. Close ); in NW of range may occur in more open habitats, including grassland bordered by forest, but conflicting information. In Thailand, occurs in both semi-evergreen and hill evergreen forests; in parts of this country where the present species occurs in sympatry with L. diardi the latter principally occurs in forests on level ground, whereas nycthemera prefers slopes, but while in the past diardi was also usually found at lower elevations this now seems to be changing (12 Sukumal, N. and Savini, T. (2009). Altitudinal differences in habitat use by Siamese fireback Lophura diardi and silver pheasant Lophura nycthemera in Khao Yai National Park, Thailand. Int. Journal Galliform Conserv. 1: 18–22. Close ). Reportedly occurs in less open areas than L. leucomelanos. Roosts in trees; study in S China identified 12 trees used as roost-sites (60%) were oak species (Lithocarpus xylocarpus, L. truncatus and L. echinophorus), two (10%) were Camellia oleifera and the other six (30%) were Castanopsis megaphylla, Lyonia ovalifolia, Rhododendron delarayi, Gaultheria jorrestii var. jorrestii, G. leucocarpa var. crenulata and Cerasus serrulate trees, and that sites were on average c. 6·5 m above ground in tall trees (13 Li, N., Zhou, W., Li, W., Zhang, Q. and Wang, X. (2010). Comparison of roosting habitat characteristics of two sympatric pheasants during springtime at Dazhong Mountain, southwestern China. Chinese Birds. 1(2): 132–140. Close ).

No information available.

In Guangdong (S China), 64 plant items and 30 animal species recorded in 13 gut contents taken throughout year; especially seeds and fruits of Castanopsis chinensis and Fagaceae. Feeds by scratching and occasionally by digging.

Male territorial call  has been likened to that of Phasianus colchicus or L. leucomelanos, but is shorter and deeper than that of first-named; in display, male gives wing-whirring and a quiet, trilling “koo koo”; both sexes utter soft whistles while feeding, and shrill whistles if disturbed (3 Madge, S., and P. McGowan (2002). Pheasants, Partridges and Grouse, including Buttonquails, Sandgrouse and Allies. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ).

In China, laying from mid Mar in C Guangdong (nominate race), otherwise from Apr onwards; thought to be Mar–May in Upper Myanmar and Thailand, but few reliable data, and mating probably occurs mainly in Jan–Feb in C Thailand (6 Savini, T. and Sukumal, N. (2009). Group structure and reproductive behaviour of Siamese fireback Lophura diardi and silver pheasant Lophura nycthemera at Khao Yai National Park, Thailand. Int. Journal Galliform Conserv. 1: 12–17. Close ). Mating system suspected to be polygamous, given that single males have been observed with several females (3 Madge, S., and P. McGowan (2002). Pheasants, Partridges and Grouse, including Buttonquails, Sandgrouse and Allies. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ), although recent study in Khao Yai National Park, Thailand (race jonesi), suggests that all males within a group have equal access to the females in that group (6 Savini, T. and Sukumal, N. (2009). Group structure and reproductive behaviour of Siamese fireback Lophura diardi and silver pheasant Lophura nycthemera at Khao Yai National Park, Thailand. Int. Journal Galliform Conserv. 1: 12–17. Close ). A nest in C Thailand was sited on a steep slope, but no further details concerning nest-sites (12 Sukumal, N. and Savini, T. (2009). Altitudinal differences in habitat use by Siamese fireback Lophura diardi and silver pheasant Lophura nycthemera in Khao Yai National Park, Thailand. Int. Journal Galliform Conserv. 1: 18–22. Close ). In Guangdong, clutches in ten nests averaged 6·9 eggs, but one contained 12, colour pale to dark rosy buff (3 Madge, S., and P. McGowan (2002). Pheasants, Partridges and Grouse, including Buttonquails, Sandgrouse and Allies. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ), all 12 hatching (range 5–12 within feral, non-native populations), mean size 51 mm × 39 mm (14 Harrison, C. J. O., and P. Castell (2002). Bird Nests, Eggs and Nestlings of Britain and Europe with North Africa and the Middle East. Second revised edition. HarperCollins, London, UK. Close ); chicks appear in wet season (with high temperature and humidity), latest hatching in early Jun. Incubation in captivity 25–26 days; chicks have chestnut and dark brown down above, whitish below, tended by female alone, although in captivity male tend brood if female dies (14 Harrison, C. J. O., and P. Castell (2002). Bird Nests, Eggs and Nestlings of Britain and Europe with North Africa and the Middle East. Second revised edition. HarperCollins, London, UK. Close ). Has bred at one year old in captivity. Natural predators of adults include reticulated python (Python reticulates) (2 Sukumal, N. and Savini, T. (2009). Reticulated python predation on Silver Pheasant in Khao Yai National Park, Thailand. Int. Journal Galliform Conserv. 2: 25–27. Close ).

Not globally threatened (Least Concern). Mace Lande: <em>annamensis</em> endangered; whiteheadi endangered; engelbachi endangered; lewisi vulnerable; all other races safe. Widely distributed (range estimated at 988,000 km²) and seemingly common in suitable habitat, so status not of immediate concern, but several isolated races merit attention. In China, considered common or very common and stable, depending on locality, but some isolated races may be rare and declining; in Thailand , estimated to number tens of thousands, possibly declining. Based on extent of habitat available, <em>annamensis</em> in Vietnam estimated to number 500–5000 (and considered At Risk) (9 Thewlis, R. M., R. J. Timmins, T. D. Evans, and J. W. Duckworth (1998). The conservation status of birds in Laos: a review of key species. Bird Conservation International 8(Supplement):1–159. Close ), and likewise engelbachi in Laos (where recorded at three localities in recent years, but frequent at just one) (9 Thewlis, R. M., R. J. Timmins, T. D. Evans, and J. W. Duckworth (1998). The conservation status of birds in Laos: a review of key species. Bird Conservation International 8(Supplement):1–159. Close ); whiteheadi on Hainan I thought to number 5550 in 1990s based on density estimate of 7.5 birds/km² in Ba Wang Ling National Nature Reserve (11 Gao, Y. (1998). Conservation status of endemic Galliformes on Hainan Island, China. Bird Conservation International. 8(4): 411–416. Close ), and lewisi on border between Thailand and Cambodia probably numbers fewer than 10,000 birds. No population estimate for restricted-range race beli, which is probably threatened by deforestation, although protected within Bach Ma National Park (15 Robson, C. R., J. C. Eames, Nguyen Cu, and Truong Van La (1993). Further recent records of birds from Vietnam. Forktail 8:25–52. Close ). Suffers various forms of habitat loss and degradation and overexploitation for food; particular pressures vary from place to place. Introduced to Germany but failed to become established (16 Lever, C. (2005). Naturalised Birds of the World. T. & A.D. Poyser, London, UK. Close ) and present in parts of S England, but population not known to be self-sustaining (17 Ogilvie, M., and the Rare Breeding Birds Panel (1999). Non-native birds breeding in the United Kingdom in 1996. British Birds 92(4):176–182. Close ). Population on island of Victoria, SW Argentina, introduced along with several other species of pheasants in 1920, through their consumption of large quantities of seeds and fruits has caused considerable changes to the ecosystem (16 Lever, C. (2005). Naturalised Birds of the World. T. & A.D. Poyser, London, UK. Close ).