Parkinson's Petrel Procellaria parkinsoni Scientific name definitions

Parkinson's Petrel is the smallest member of the black petrel group in the genus Procellaria; while species within this complex are difficult to identify, they are typically separable in life given good views or photos.  About the size of Pink-footed Shearwater, Parkinson's Petrel is all dark brown or black with a small, rounded head and long primary projection, and has a dark tip to an otherwise horn-colored, distinctly plated bill.  The species nests only on Great and Little Barrier Islands of New Zealand, but disperses throughout the south Pacific Ocean as far east as the waters of the Humboldt Current offshore of western South America.  Longline fishing as well as the introduction of cats and rats to the breeding islands have proved to be major threats to the small population of Parkinson's Petrels, but conservation measures underway in New Zealand appear to be helping the species.

41–46 cm (1 Howell, S. N. G. (2012). Petrels, Albatrosses, and Storm-Petrels of North America: A Photographic Guide. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, USA. Close ); 585–989 g (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close , 3 Freeman, R., Dennis, T., Landers, T., Thompson, D., Bell, E., Walker, M. and Guilford, T. (2010). Black Petrels (Procellaria parkinsoni) patrol the ocean shelf-break: GPS tracking of a Vulnerable Procellariiform seabird. PLOS One. 5(2): e9236. Close ); wingspan 112–123 cm (1 Howell, S. N. G. (2012). Petrels, Albatrosses, and Storm-Petrels of North America: A Photographic Guide. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, USA. Close ). Entirely sooty black  , often darkest on head and neck; underside of primary bases  and coverts slightly paler and greyer; iris  blackish brown; bill ivory-yellow, culmen and tip variably tinged grey; legs  blackish. Sexes alike, but male marginally larger in wing and bill measurements (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Juvenile  as adult, but in fresh plumage in May–Aug, when older birds are heavily worn or in moult (1 Howell, S. N. G. (2012). Petrels, Albatrosses, and Storm-Petrels of North America: A Photographic Guide. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, USA. Close ); body- and flight-feathers unmoulted during first year, and bill tends to have reduced yellowish tones, sometimes tinged greyish, bluish or pink (4 Shirihai, H. (2007). A Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife. The Birds and Mammals of the Antarctic Continent and the Southern Ocean. Second edition. A. & C. Black, London, UK. Close ). Smaller and less bulky than P. aequinoctialis; hardly separable from very similar <em>P. westlandica</em> , though has slightly smaller bill and is smaller overall and narrower-winged, bill  usually paler on tip and culmen, so can be more visible at sea, making size comparison more difficult, perhaps slightly slimmer-bodied, the neck being marginally more noticeable, especially when head held slightly higher than body (differences clearer compared to P. aequinoctialis), feet project more obviously beyond tail tip (4 Shirihai, H. (2007). A Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife. The Birds and Mammals of the Antarctic Continent and the Southern Ocean. Second edition. A. & C. Black, London, UK. Close ), and perhaps tends to have slightly more contrastingly grey bases to primaries on underwing compared to P. westlandica. Being smallest of genus, could be confused with largest all-dark Ardenna, dark morph of Ardenna pacificus slimmer, long-tailed and has thin bill, while much more similar <em>A. carneipes</em> has slightly slimmer and longer-looking bill , and leg colour can also help.

Tropical C & E Pacific Ocean, breeding on Little Barrier I and Great Barrier I, off NE North I (New Zealand).

Marine and pelagic; usually occurs far from coast, avoiding inshore waters, except around colonies. Breeds on forested ridges  in highlands.

Migratory; most birds move E over C Pacific to W coasts of Central and South America, mainly between SW Mexico at 15º N (off Guerrero) (1 Howell, S. N. G. (2012). Petrels, Albatrosses, and Storm-Petrels of North America: A Photographic Guide. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, USA. Close ) and N Peru (12º S) (5 Spear, L. B., and D. G. Ainley (2008). The seabird community of the Peru Current, 1980–1995, with comparisons to other eastern boundary currents. Marine Ornithology 36(2):125–144. Close ), as well as W along equator to 110º W (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ), with an exceptional record off C California (Oct 2005) and an unverified report from Oregon (also Oct 2005) (1 Howell, S. N. G. (2012). Petrels, Albatrosses, and Storm-Petrels of North America: A Photographic Guide. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, USA. Close ); considered to be most common off coasts of Ecuador and Peru. Recorded in N Chile (Dec 2010) (6 Schmitt, F. (2011). Primer avistamiento de Fardela de Parkinson (Procellaria parkinsoni) desde la costa chilena, y comentarios sobre la identificación de esta especie. La Chiricoca. 12: 34–39. In Spanish. Close ). Species is present off Middle America year-round, but mainly Mar/Apr–Oct (1 Howell, S. N. G. (2012). Petrels, Albatrosses, and Storm-Petrels of North America: A Photographic Guide. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, USA. Close ), with records off South America (Colombia) as early as mid Feb (7 Estela, F.A., García, C., Johnston-Gonzales, R., Soler, G. and Bessudo, S. (2008). Confirmation of Parkinson’s Petrel Procellaria parkinsoni in the Colombian Pacific. Cotinga. 28: 60–61. Close ) Small numbers occur off E Australia, where claimed off New South Wales in Feb and Nov (8 Wood, K.A. (1990). Seasonal abundance and marine habitats of Procellaria fulmarine and gadfly petrels off central New South Wales. Notornis 37(2):81–105. Close ), although only two accepted records (most recently Oct 2010) (9 Palliser, T., and M. Carter (2013). Rare birds: the 2012 BARC report. Australian Birdlife 2(4):50–53. Close ), and also recorded S to Ross Sea, E Antarctica (4 Shirihai, H. (2007). A Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife. The Birds and Mammals of the Antarctic Continent and the Southern Ocean. Second edition. A. & C. Black, London, UK. Close ). During breeding season mainly occurs in subtropical waters around North I, New Zealand, between c. 30º S and 42º S, and 150º E and 175º W (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ), but is known to range up to 1130 km from colonies though generally does not reach > 550 km away from the species’ breeding sites (3 Freeman, R., Dennis, T., Landers, T., Thompson, D., Bell, E., Walker, M. and Guilford, T. (2010). Black Petrels (Procellaria parkinsoni) patrol the ocean shelf-break: GPS tracking of a Vulnerable Procellariiform seabird. PLOS One. 5(2): e9236. Close ).

Mostly cephalopods (Ommastrephes bartrami, Histioteuthis), at least during breeding season (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ), with some fish and small proportions of crustaceans. Captures prey by surface-seizing ; also surface-dives and pursuit-plunges that can last up to 20 seconds (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Feeds mainly by night, either alone or in loose monospecific flocks of up to 300 birds (10 Pitman, R. L., and L. T. Ballance (1992). Parkinson’s Petrel distribution and foraging ecology in the eastern Pacific: aspects of an exclusive feeding relationship with dolphins. Condor 94(4):825–835. Close ), sometimes within mixed-species flocks of other seabirds (4 Shirihai, H. (2007). A Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife. The Birds and Mammals of the Antarctic Continent and the Southern Ocean. Second edition. A. & C. Black, London, UK. Close ). Often scavenges around trawlers and readily approaches boats in general (11 Buurman, D. and Shirihai, H. (2003). Kaikoura, New Zealand: the world’s no.1 site for seabirds and marine mammals. Birding World. 16(4): 161–172. Close ). Regularly associates with cetaceans, especially during non-breeding season, e.g. false killer (Pseudorca crassidens) and melon-headed whales (Peponocephala electra); during surveys in E tropical Pacific between 1976 and 1990, of 618 individual petrels observed, 469 (76%) were associated with ten different species of dolphins, on 55 occasions (10 Pitman, R. L., and L. T. Ballance (1992). Parkinson’s Petrel distribution and foraging ecology in the eastern Pacific: aspects of an exclusive feeding relationship with dolphins. Condor 94(4):825–835. Close , 2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ).

Vocalizes only at colonies and after dark, with three main calls identified: a Clack is the commonest, which is a series of far-carrying, staccato pulses given from birds on ground or in burrow; high-pitched Throaty Squawks that are given during disputes; and Aerial Calls, which are only rarely heard (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Considered to be probably silent at sea (4 Shirihai, H. (2007). A Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife. The Birds and Mammals of the Antarctic Continent and the Southern Ocean. Second edition. A. & C. Black, London, UK. Close ).

Starts Nov, with colony return from c. 10 Oct, followed by pre-laying exodus of c. 23 days (both sexes), egg-laying mostly 20 Nov and 25 Dec (and up to ten days either side of this), and young fledging mid Apr to late Jul (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Exclusively nocturnal at breeding sites (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ); long-term monogamous and territorial around burrow entrances (4 Shirihai, H. (2007). A Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife. The Birds and Mammals of the Antarctic Continent and the Southern Ocean. Second edition. A. & C. Black, London, UK. Close ). Up to 22·4% of adults may skip breeding during any given season (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ); burrow use on Great Barrier I between the 1995/96 and 2004/05 seasons by breeding birds was 60–70%, by non-breeding birds 20–25% and the remaining burrows were empty (12 Bell, E. and Sim, J. (2005). Long-term monitoring of black petrel (Procellaria parkinsoni) on Great Barrier Island. Notornis. 52(3): 175–176. Close ). Colonial; nests in self-excavated burrows 1–3 m long (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ), cavities, hollow logs and amongst tree roots, with sparse nest lining (4 Shirihai, H. (2007). A Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife. The Birds and Mammals of the Antarctic Continent and the Southern Ocean. Second edition. A. & C. Black, London, UK. Close ). Single white egg, mean size 69·3 mm × 50·5 mm (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ); incubation 56·5 days (single record), with stints of c. 8–17 days (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ); chicks  have black down  , probably brooded for less than one day, thereafter fed on c. 50% of nights during first ten days of life and c. 35% of nights at age one month, with meal size ranging from 89 g to 167 g (mean 121 g) (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ); fledging  96–122 days at 725–794 g, but achieves peak weight in excess of 1000 g earlier than this (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Hatching success c. 84%, fledging success very low on Little Barrier I prior to cat eradication (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ), while overall breeding success on Great Barrier I between 1996 and 2000 ranged from 75% to 97% (13 Bell, E.A., Sim, J.L. and Imber, M.J. (2000). Breeding biology and conservation of the Black Petrel Procellaria parkinsoni on Great Barrier Island, New Zealand. Marine Orn.. P. 127 in:. Close ). Sexual maturity at c. 6–8·5 years, although birds can return to colony after five years (14 Imber, M.J., McFadden, I., Bell, E.A. and Scofield, R.P. (2003). Post-fledging migration, age of first return and recruitment, and results of inter-colony translocation of black petrels (Procellaria parkinsoni). Notornis. 50(3): 183–190. Close , 2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). During 1986–1990, a maximum of 42% fledglings survived to six years old; the 1990 cohort had significantly better survival than 1986–1989 cohorts, and this cohort, just 21% of experimental birds (transferred to Little Barrier I), contributed 43% of chicks known to have been reared by experimental birds prior to 2001, with neither body mass at departure nor El Niño-Southern Oscillation clearly related to differential survival, but given that fledglings were always transferred at similar developmental stages, the earliest transfer of heavy fledglings was most successful (14 Imber, M.J., McFadden, I., Bell, E.A. and Scofield, R.P. (2003). Post-fledging migration, age of first return and recruitment, and results of inter-colony translocation of black petrels (Procellaria parkinsoni). Notornis. 50(3): 183–190. Close ). Adult survival estimated at 88% (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Known to have lived at least 17 years.

VULNERABLE. Total population variously estimated at c. 2600 breeding pairs and c. 10,000 individuals (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ), or 1400 breeding pairs and c. 5000 individuals, although at-sea surveys between 1980 to 1995, involving 1020 hours covering 14,277 km² of ocean off Chile to Panama, estimated as many as 38,000 individuals during the austral autumn (28,000–50,000) (15 Spear, L.B., Ainley, D.G. and Webb, S.W. (2005). Distribution, abundance, habitat use and behaviour of three Procellaria petrels off South America. Notornis. 52(2): 88–105. Close ). Slowly recovering after eradication of cats from Little Barrier I in 1980 and perhaps boosted by transfer of 249 chicks from nearby Great Barrier I between 1986 and 1990 (14 Imber, M.J., McFadden, I., Bell, E.A. and Scofield, R.P. (2003). Post-fledging migration, age of first return and recruitment, and results of inter-colony translocation of black petrels (Procellaria parkinsoni). Notornis. 50(3): 183–190. Close , 2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ); heavy predation for over a century; cats (introduced in 1800s) (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ) killed 65% of all fledglings in 1972, 90% in 1973, and 100% in 1974 and 1975, as well as many adults; colony was in process of rapid decline, but saved when only a few hundred birds remained. Larger colony on Great Barrier I suffers comparatively little predation by cats and rats (though latter varied from 1·4% and 8% between 1996 and 2000) (13 Bell, E.A., Sim, J.L. and Imber, M.J. (2000). Breeding biology and conservation of the Black Petrel Procellaria parkinsoni on Great Barrier Island, New Zealand. Marine Orn.. P. 127 in:. Close ), perhaps because presence of Pterodroma cookii absorbs predation pressure (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ); a few may still be taken for food by Maoris. Formerly more widespread in New Zealand, breeding abundantly at several inland sites (above 300 m) (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ) on North I and N regions of South I (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ), where subjected to human exploitation; last bred on North I in 1958, at Taranaki (16 Medway, D.G. (2002). An historic record of black petrels (Procellaria parkinsoni) nesting in south Westland. Notornis. 49(1): 51–52. Close , 2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Species saved from immediate extinction, but requires more suitable nesting habitat on other predator-free islands, to be able to build up adequate numbers; Great Barrier I seems suitable and efforts already being directed towards removal of cats. Some casualties amongst fledglings, when attracted to lights during first flight. Incidental mortality due to commercial fisheries, both during breeding and non-breeding seasons (12 Bell, E. and Sim, J. (2005). Long-term monitoring of black petrel (Procellaria parkinsoni) on Great Barrier Island. Notornis. 52(3): 175–176. Close ), may represent significant threat (17 Brothers, N., Duckworth, A.R., Safina, C. and Gilman, E.L. (2010). Seabird bycatch in pelagic longline fisheries is grossly underestimated when using only haul data. PLOS One. 5(8): e12491. Close ).