Black-winged Kite Elanus caeruleus Scientific name definitions

30–37 cm (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ); male 197–277 g, female 219–343 g; wingspan 77–92 cm (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Distinctive black shoulder patches evident at all ages, when perched or in buoyant, gull-like flight; often hovers, and when perched pumps tail up and down . Only slight size difference between sexes, with female just 3% larger and up to 19% heavier (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Pale primary-coverts on underwing separate from congeners. Juvenile browner, eye pale yellow not red. Races separated on size and intensity of plumage colour: wahgiensis smallest and has grey wash over sides of breast and blacker underside to primaries (like nominate); hypoleucus largest and longer-tailed, has larger white forehead patch, white breast-sides and flanks, underside to primaries paler and greyer (sometimes even whitish) and primary-coverts sometimes have larger, dark grey spots near tips; nominate and <em>vociferus</em> are similar in having small white forehead patch, breast-sides and flanks pale grey to off-white, blackish underside to primaries and primary-coverts have only greyish flecks at tips, but vociferus usually has a darker underside to the secondaries (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ).

Editor's Note: This article requires further editing work to merge existing content into the appropriate Subspecies sections. Please bear with us while this update takes place.

Editor's Note: Additional distribution information for this taxon can be found in the 'Subspecies' article above. In the future we will develop a range-wide distribution article.

Open savanna grasslands with scattered bushes and small trees; extends into arid steppe, desert or clearings in dense woodland, wherever prey is abundant. Presence of expanding population in Spain strongly associated with grazed, cultivated parklands called dehesas (6 Balbontín, J., Negro, J.J., Sarasola, J.H., Ferrero, J.J. and Rivera, D. (2008). Land-use changes may explain the recent range expansion of the Black-shouldered Kite Elanus caeruleus in southern Europe Ibis. 150(4): 707–716. Close ). Usually recorded from sea-level to 750 m in Europe, but to c. 2020 m in S Asia (7 Choudhury, A. (2001). Some bird records from Nagaland, north-east India. Forktail 17:91–103. Close ), 3000 m in Africa (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ), and 2400 m in SW Arabia (8 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission and Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and Frankfurt, Germany. Close ). Outside breeding season, up to 500 birds may roost communally in trees or reedbeds, spreading out by day to individual hunting territories.

Nomadic, ranging widely throughout its extensive range, in search of conditions supporting abundant prey; often travels long distances, and even crosses equator, e.g. from Transvaal (South Africa) to Malawi (9 Dowsett-Lemaire, F. (2006). A Contribution to the Ornithology of Malawi. Tauraco Research Report 8. Tauraco Press, Liège, Belgium. Close ) and Uganda. Considerable monthly turnover, even in local populations which appear to be stable and sedentary, usually with males arriving first and remaining longest on territories, and females wandering in search of mates and nesting opportunities. Post-breeding dispersal is recorded in Iberian Peninsula, where the species is most widely distributed in winter although still concentrated in W & SW; a few individuals cross the Strait of Gibraltar (10 de Juana, E., and E. Garcia (2015). The Birds of the Iberian Peninsula. Bloomsbury, London, UK. Close ). Vagrant N to Belgium (11 Grangé, J.-L. (2003). L’erratisme de l’Élanion blanc Elanus caeruleus en France au cours du XX^e siècle. Ornithos. 10(3): 110–115. Close ), Netherlands, Denmark (12 Witte, M. and Ebels, E.B. (2002). Grijze Wouwen op Texel in maart 1998 en in Bargerveen in juni-augustus 2767676. Dutch Birding. 24(2): 75–79. Close ), Germany and Poland (11 Grangé, J.-L. (2003). L’erratisme de l’Élanion blanc Elanus caeruleus en France au cours du XX^e siècle. Ornithos. 10(3): 110–115. Close ), as well as N Turkey, Kuwait, Lebanon, Syria (unconfirmed) (13 Serra, G., G. Al Qaim, M. S. Abdallah, A. Kanani, and A. K. Assaed (2005) A long-term bird survey in the central Syrian desert (2000–2004): Part 2 - a provisional annotated checklist. Sandgrouse 27: 104–125. Close ), Uzbekistan, Afghanistan (14 Salim, M.A. (2002). The first records, including breeding, of Black-winged Kite Elanus caeruleus in Iraq. Sandgrouse. 24(2): 136–138. Close ) and NE China (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ); records in France, away from tiny breeding range (centred on Pyrénées-Atlantiques and Landes), have increased in recent decades presumably as a result of population growth in Iberia (15 Maurel, C. (1992). Sur le séjour d’un Élanion blanc Elanus caeruleus dans le département Dutarn. Alauda. 60(3): 175–176. Close ), with most extralimitals observed in Apr–May and Oct (11 Grangé, J.-L. (2003). L’erratisme de l’Élanion blanc Elanus caeruleus en France au cours du XX^e siècle. Ornithos. 10(3): 110–115. Close ). Recently (Apr 1998 and Feb 2011) recorded for first time in Libya (16 Massa, B. (1999). New and less known birds from Libya. Bull. Brit. Orn. Club. 119(2): 129–133. Close , 17 Ławicki, L. and Perlman, Y. (2017). Black-winged Kite in the WP: increase in breeding population, vagrancy and range. Dutch Birding. 39(1): 1–12. Close ). Records of birds at sea in Gulf of Aden and on Farasan Is, Red Sea, suggest movement between Africa and Arabia (where most records in Nov–Mar) (8 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission and Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and Frankfurt, Germany. Close ), and has also been recorded twice recently on Maldives (Indian Ocean) (18 Anderson, R.C. (2007). New records of birds from the Maldives. Forktail. 23: 135–144. Close ) and four times in Madagascar (Sept 1988, Sept–Oct 1995) (19 Safford, R. J., and A. F. A. Hawkins, Editors (2013). The Birds of Africa. Volume 8. The Malagasy Region. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Nominate race has also been recorded twice in SW Oman and several times in SW Saudi Arabia (17 Ławicki, L. and Perlman, Y. (2017). Black-winged Kite in the WP: increase in breeding population, vagrancy and range. Dutch Birding. 39(1): 1–12. Close ).

Primarily rodents of 40–90 g (exceptionally up to 164 g) (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ); shrews, bats, small birds (including doves, larks, pipits and emberizids) (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ), reptiles and insects also predominate at times. S African study found that just three rodent species comprised 98% of diet and that breeding birds selected larger prey species that immatures and non-breeders; furthermore, larger prey became more important as breeding cycle progressed (20 Slotow, R. and Perrin, M.R. (1994). Large prey as a qualitative stimulus to breeding in small raptors. Journal of Ornithology. 135(1): 6. Close ). Israeli breeders apparently heavily dependent on social voles (Microtus socialis guentheri) (3 Perlman, Y. and Israeli, N. (2013). Black-shouldered Kite Elanus caeruleus breeding in Israel. Sandgrouse. 35(1): 25–27. Close ). In Sabah, Borneo, analysis of 597 pellets confirmed the following remains: Polynesian rat (Rattus exulans, 67%), short-horned grasshopper (Valanga nigricornis, 23%), unidentified small rodents (5%), Whitehead’s spiny rat (Maxomys whiteheadi, 2·7%), Asiatic rhinoceros beetle (Oryctes rhinoceros, 1·3%), south-east Asian white-toothed shrew (Crocidura fuliginosa, 0·8%) and White-breasted Waterhen (Amaurornis phoenicurus, 0·2%), while an additional 100 carcasses also included Malaysian house rats (Rattus rattus diardii, 61%) and common sun skink (Eutropis multifasciata, 6%) (21 Zainal Abidin, C.M.R., Hamid, N.H. and Noor, H.M. (2014). Observations of the diet of Black-winged Kite Elanus caeruleus in the oil-palm plantations of the Sahabat area, Sabah, Borneo, Malaysia. BirdingASIA. 22: 55–57. Close ). Hunts from perch (tree, pole or wire) (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ) or hovers, usually making a slow descent in stages, with wings held in high dihedral above the back and feet extended below, and ending with a fast plunge into ground cover. Hovers in still or windy conditions. Sometimes engages in fast gliding flight low above ground, and also hawks locusts and other winged insects in flight (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Often crepuscular in hunting. Frequently consumes prey in flight, even including small mammals (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ).

Generally, vocalizations are high-pitched and weak, and given most frequently in courtship and around nest, e.g. a piping “pee-oo” in contact between pair and also by male to advertise territory; also harsher “kree-uk” in aggression and a whistled scream in alarm (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ).

In Spain, copulation begins up to 44 days before onset of laying and may continue until 66 days after laying (22 Ferrero, J.J., Grande, J.M. and Negro, J.J. (2003). Copulation behavior of a potentially double-brooded bird of prey, the Black-winged Kite (Elanus caeruleus). Journal of Raptor Research. 37(1): 1–7. Close ). Peak laying at start or end of summer or wet season in sub-Saharan Africa and India, but recorded in all months in opportunistic reaction to rodent availability, especially that of larger species; more seasonal in N Africa and S Europe, Feb–Apr, with young in nest until at least mid May (23 Moali, A. and Gaci, B. (1992). Les rapaces diurnes nicheurs en Kabylie (Algérie). Alauda. 60(3): 164–169. Close ), but even here, in SW France , clutches recorded in all months except Dec–Jan (24 Duchateau, S. and Delage, F. (2006). Évolution, paramètres reproducteurs et facteurs limitants de l’Élanion blanc Elanus caeruleus dans le sud-ouest de la France. Alauda. 74(4): 385–398. Close ). Elsewhere, Jan–Jun in Malaysia; Mar–Apr and Sept–Dec in Sabah (Borneo) (25 Mann, C. F. (2008). The Birds of Borneo: An Annotated Checklist. B.O.U. Checklist 23. British Ornithologists’ Union, and British Ornithologists’ Club, Peterborough. Close , 21 Zainal Abidin, C.M.R., Hamid, N.H. and Noor, H.M. (2014). Observations of the diet of Black-winged Kite Elanus caeruleus in the oil-palm plantations of the Sahabat area, Sabah, Borneo, Malaysia. BirdingASIA. 22: 55–57. Close ); Apr and Aug in Sumatra; Aug and Oct in SW Arabia (8 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission and Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and Frankfurt, Germany. Close ), Apr–Sept in Israel (3 Perlman, Y. and Israeli, N. (2013). Black-shouldered Kite Elanus caeruleus breeding in Israel. Sandgrouse. 35(1): 25–27. Close ), mid Dec and May in Iraq (26 Ararat, K., O. Fadhil, R. F. Porter, and M. Salim (2011). Breeding birds in Iraq: important new discoveries. Sandgrouse 33(1):12–33. Close ), Jan in Senegal (27 King, M. (2000). Breeding of Swallow-tailed Kite Chelictinia riocourii in Senegal. Malimbus 22(1): 90–91. Close ), Feb and Apr–Oct in Ethiopia (28 Ash, J. S., and J. Atkins (2009). Birds of Ethiopia and Eritrea: An Atlas of Distribution. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ), May–Oct in Uganda (29 Carswell, M., D. Pomeroy, J. Reynolds, and H. Tushabe (2005). The Bird Atlas of Uganda. British Ornithologists’ Club and British Ornithologists' Union, Oxford, UK. Close ), May–Nov in Malawi (9 Dowsett-Lemaire, F. (2006). A Contribution to the Ornithology of Malawi. Tauraco Research Report 8. Tauraco Press, Liège, Belgium. Close ), and peak Aug–Oct in SW South Africa (30 Tarboton, W. (2001). A Guide to the Nests and Eggs of Southern African Birds. Struik Publishers, Cape Town, South Africa. Close ). Male has butterfly-like courtship flight (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ) and this is also used in territory defence against rival males (31 Duchateau, S., Bounine, É. and Delage, F. (2003). Données sur le comportement de l’Élanion blanc Elanus caeruleus en période de reproduction en Aquitaine (France). Alauda. 71(1): 9–30. Close ). Generally monogamous, but sometimes sequentially polyandrous (30 Tarboton, W. (2001). A Guide to the Nests and Eggs of Southern African Birds. Struik Publishers, Cape Town, South Africa. Close ). Pair rapidly (7–13 days) (30 Tarboton, W. (2001). A Guide to the Nests and Eggs of Southern African Birds. Struik Publishers, Cape Town, South Africa. Close ) builds small, saucer-shaped platform (25–45 cm wide, exceptionally 150 cm) (30 Tarboton, W. (2001). A Guide to the Nests and Eggs of Southern African Birds. Struik Publishers, Cape Town, South Africa. Close , 21 Zainal Abidin, C.M.R., Hamid, N.H. and Noor, H.M. (2014). Observations of the diet of Black-winged Kite Elanus caeruleus in the oil-palm plantations of the Sahabat area, Sabah, Borneo, Malaysia. BirdingASIA. 22: 55–57. Close ) of sticks and weeds, lined with dry grass, in fork of upper branches of tree (including palms (26 Ararat, K., O. Fadhil, R. F. Porter, and M. Salim (2011). Breeding birds in Iraq: important new discoveries. Sandgrouse 33(1):12–33. Close ), eucalypts, poplars and pines (30 Tarboton, W. (2001). A Guide to the Nests and Eggs of Southern African Birds. Struik Publishers, Cape Town, South Africa. Close ), and sometimes obscured by ivy or mistletoe if constructed in deciduous tree) (31 Duchateau, S., Bounine, É. and Delage, F. (2003). Données sur le comportement de l’Élanion blanc Elanus caeruleus en période de reproduction en Aquitaine (France). Alauda. 71(1): 9–30. Close ), bush or on electricity pylon, 0·75 (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close )–25 m (26 Ararat, K., O. Fadhil, R. F. Porter, and M. Salim (2011). Breeding birds in Iraq: important new discoveries. Sandgrouse 33(1):12–33. Close ) above ground (usually 3–12 m) (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Nests occasionally as close as c. 200 m apart, but territory size more usually 2·4–4·5 km² (32 Clark, W. S., and R. C. Banks (1992). The taxonomic status of the White-tailed Kite. Wilson Bulletin 104(4):571–579. Close ). Nests sometimes reused for successive clutches, but more commonly pair uses new nest (30 Tarboton, W. (2001). A Guide to the Nests and Eggs of Southern African Birds. Struik Publishers, Cape Town, South Africa. Close ). Usually 3–4 very variably marked (30 Tarboton, W. (2001). A Guide to the Nests and Eggs of Southern African Birds. Struik Publishers, Cape Town, South Africa. Close ) eggs (2–6), mean size 40 mm × 31 mm, laid at 1–3-day intervals (33 Harrison, C. J. O., and P. Castell (2002). Bird Nests, Eggs and Nestlings of Britain and Europe with North Africa and the Middle East. Second revised edition. HarperCollins, London, UK. Close ); incubation 30–35 (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ) days, usually starting with first egg and almost exclusively by female (30 Tarboton, W. (2001). A Guide to the Nests and Eggs of Southern African Birds. Struik Publishers, Cape Town, South Africa. Close ) (male may incubate for short periods to permit female to hunt) (31 Duchateau, S., Bounine, É. and Delage, F. (2003). Données sur le comportement de l’Élanion blanc Elanus caeruleus en période de reproduction en Aquitaine (France). Alauda. 71(1): 9–30. Close ); chicks have pale grey-brown down after c. 1 week, but initially pinkish buff (33 Harrison, C. J. O., and P. Castell (2002). Bird Nests, Eggs and Nestlings of Britain and Europe with North Africa and the Middle East. Second revised edition. HarperCollins, London, UK. Close ); fledging 30–40 (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ) days and young may remain dependent for additional c. 12 weeks (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ) (more usually 20–60 days) (31 Duchateau, S., Bounine, É. and Delage, F. (2003). Données sur le comportement de l’Élanion blanc Elanus caeruleus en période de reproduction en Aquitaine (France). Alauda. 71(1): 9–30. Close ); may rear multiple broods in succession (e.g. seven attempts in 19 months) and up to four per year in SW France (24 Duchateau, S. and Delage, F. (2006). Évolution, paramètres reproducteurs et facteurs limitants de l’Élanion blanc Elanus caeruleus dans le sud-ouest de la France. Alauda. 74(4): 385–398. Close ), in some cases with male taking over all feeding of fledglings (typically male provisions female, which then feeds chicks) (31 Duchateau, S., Bounine, É. and Delage, F. (2003). Données sur le comportement de l’Élanion blanc Elanus caeruleus en période de reproduction en Aquitaine (France). Alauda. 71(1): 9–30. Close ), and female starting new clutch with a different mate. Breeding output of small French population subject to detailed appraisal: success rate of first clutch just 37·28%, largely due to unfavorable early spring climate, but rises to 60% for second (or replacement) clutch, and clutches following successful breeding effort proved more likely to succeed (75%), while the mean success rate overall is 51·28% with productivity of 1·15 juveniles per attempt and 2·25 per successful breeding (24 Duchateau, S. and Delage, F. (2006). Évolution, paramètres reproducteurs et facteurs limitants de l’Élanion blanc Elanus caeruleus dans le sud-ouest de la France. Alauda. 74(4): 385–398. Close ).

Not globally threatened (Least Concern). CITES II. One of the commonest birds of prey throughout its wide range, e.g. estimated 44,000 pairs in Transvaal alone. Widespread and fairly common in parts of E Africa (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). In Borneo, rare in N, but widespread and locally common in Kalimantan, although some evidence of decline there (25 Mann, C. F. (2008). The Birds of Borneo: An Annotated Checklist. B.O.U. Checklist 23. British Ornithologists’ Union, and British Ornithologists’ Club, Peterborough. Close ); decreasing in Java (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ); now rare in Philippines (34 Allen, D. (2006). New records and other observations of birds on the island of Tablas, Romblon province, Philippines. Forktail 22:77–84. Close ); rare in NE India, where just two records in Nagaland (35 Choudhury, A. (2005). Significant records of birds in Nagaland, north-east India. Forktail 21: 187–1911097. Close ); locally fairly common in Thailand and Sumatra; common in Nam Cat Tien National Park (S Vietnam) in mid 1980s. Perhaps in process of colonizing extreme S Japan, where first recorded in mid 1990s, and has recently bred on Ishigaki, in S Nansei Shoto. Patchily distributed in some areas, notably India, Iberia and NW Africa. The species was first reported in Iberia in the mid 19th century (10 de Juana, E., and E. Garcia (2015). The Birds of the Iberian Peninsula. Bloomsbury, London, UK. Close ), where breeding was apparently confined to S Portugal until the early 1970s, when breeding was first reported in Toledo province, in 1973) (10 de Juana, E., and E. Garcia (2015). The Birds of the Iberian Peninsula. Bloomsbury, London, UK. Close ). In early 1990s (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ), there were an estimated 150–200 pairs in Portugal and c. 1000 (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ) pairs estimated in Spain, where it has since increased and spread, although the core population remains in W & SW Iberia. Range has also expanded into SW France (11 Grangé, J.-L. (2003). L’erratisme de l’Élanion blanc Elanus caeruleus en France au cours du XX^e siècle. Ornithos. 10(3): 110–115. Close ), where first records in the 1980s, first breeding proven in 1990 (36 Guyot, A. (1990). Première nidification réussie en France de l’Élanion blanc Elanus caeruleus. Nos Oiseaux. 21(6): 297–331. In French with English summary. Close ), 16 pairs censused in 2004 (24 Duchateau, S. and Delage, F. (2006). Évolution, paramètres reproducteurs et facteurs limitants de l’Élanion blanc Elanus caeruleus dans le sud-ouest de la France. Alauda. 74(4): 385–398. Close ), 166–126 pairs in 2012 (37 Quaintenne, G., and les coordinateurs-espèce (2014). Les oiseaux nicheurs rares et menacés en France en 2013. Ornithos 21(6): 297–331. In French with English summary. Close ) and 130–150 pairs in 2014 (38 Ławicki, Ł., and A. B. van den Berg (2016) WP reports. Dutch Birding 38: 322–336. Close ). In N Africa, local in Morocco (39 Vernon, R., Thévenot, M., Bergier, P. and Rousseau, E. (2005). Argan woodland: an important bird habitat in Morocco. Bull. Afr. Bird Club 12(2): 134–146. Close ) and Algeria, and was declining in Tunisia (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ) until 1990s, but has more recently expanded its range (40 Ouni, R. (2007). Distribution et reproduction de l’Élanion blanc (Elanus caeruleus) en Tunisie. Ostrich. 78(2): 395–399. Close ). One of few species to prosper in areas of agriculture, bush clearing and heavy grazing, e.g. along R Nile; currently in expansion in several parts of range, e.g. in Egypt, where historically widespread and common, declined during mid-20th century, but started increasing again in 1980s (41 Meininger, P.L. (1991). Range extension of Black-winged Kite Elanus caeruleus in northern Egypt. Sandgrouse. 13: 98–101. Close ). Recent spate of records of race vociferus in Israel culminated in five pairs breeding in 2011–2012 (3 Perlman, Y. and Israeli, N. (2013). Black-shouldered Kite Elanus caeruleus breeding in Israel. Sandgrouse. 35(1): 25–27. Close ), which had increased to 130–150 pairs by early 2016 (17 Ławicki, L. and Perlman, Y. (2017). Black-winged Kite in the WP: increase in breeding population, vagrancy and range. Dutch Birding. 39(1): 1–12. Close ); in neighbouring Jordan, at least nine records also of vociferus, all since 2013, and some evidence of breeding (4 Khoury, F., Massis, R. and Wichmann, G. (2017). Recent records and indications of breeding of Black-shouldered Kites Elanus caeruleus in Jordan. Sandgrouse. 39(1): 42–44. Close ). First nesting record in SE Turkey in spring 2013 (42 Kirwan, G.M., Özen, M., Ertuhan, M. and Atahan, A. (compilers) (2014). Turkey Bird Report 2007–2011. Sandgrouse. 36(2): 146–175. Close ), with perhaps ten pairs now breeding (17 Ławicki, L. and Perlman, Y. (2017). Black-winged Kite in the WP: increase in breeding population, vagrancy and range. Dutch Birding. 39(1): 1–12. Close ). SW Arabian population estimated at just 10–20 pairs, but appears to be colonizing E parts of the Peninsula (e.g., nine records in Oman in recent years and first in Saudi Arabia’s Eastern Province in Mar 2012) (43 Harrison, I. and Grieve, A. (2012). Around the region. Sandgrouse. 34(2): 189–203. Close ), as well as Iraq (where first recorded in 2001, since discovered breeding and believed to be expanding its range) (26 Ararat, K., O. Fadhil, R. F. Porter, and M. Salim (2011). Breeding birds in Iraq: important new discoveries. Sandgrouse 33(1):12–33. Close , 17 Ławicki, L. and Perlman, Y. (2017). Black-winged Kite in the WP: increase in breeding population, vagrancy and range. Dutch Birding. 39(1): 1–12. Close ) and Iran (first recorded 1998 (44 Roth, T., R. Aye, R. Burri, and M. Schweizer (2005). Bird observations from Iran in February–March 2001, including a new species for the Middle East. Sandgrouse 27(1):63–68. Close ) and apparently now an established breeder in C & S of the country) (45 Harrison, I., and A. Grieve (2012). Around the region. Sandgrouse 34(1):93–110. Close , 17 Ławicki, L. and Perlman, Y. (2017). Black-winged Kite in the WP: increase in breeding population, vagrancy and range. Dutch Birding. 39(1): 1–12. Close ). Uncommon in Somalia, where status poorly understood and known only from extreme NW & S (46 Ash, J. S., and J. E. Miskell (1998). Birds of Somalia. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ). Mobility and reproductive biology ensure optimum use of resources, repeated colonization of ephemeral or marginal habitats, high fecundity and maintenance of large megapopulations. In South Africa, prone to being killed by vehicles, presumably because of high foraging activity on or adjacent to roads (47 Dean, W.R.J. and Milton, S.J. (2003). The importance of roads and road verges for raptors and crows in the Succulent and Nama-Karoo, South Africa. Ostrich. 74(3-4): 181–186. Close ). Affected locally by rodenticides.