Crowned Eagle Stephanoaetus coronatus Scientific name definitions

80–99 cm; male 2700–4120 g, female 3175–4700 g (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ); wingspan of smallest male 151 cm, largest female 181 cm (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Long tail and short, rounded wings like a giant goshawk, with densely feathered legs , very large toes, heavy bill and comparatively small eyes (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Small face and voluminous crest (latter usually held flat) (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ) notable at all ages. Upperparts slate-black, becoming browner on head and on wings, with two grey bands on tail  and narrow white tip, and has black-blotched breast, becoming barred ventrally , and whiter sparsely dark-spotted thighs (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Female larger (on average 10% larger and at least 14% heavier) (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ), more heavily marked and more rufous (less cream) below (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ), with one less black wingbar than male, and is generally shorter-crested and relatively longer-tailed (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Bare parts: greenish-yellow to yellow irides (initially grey-blue in juvenile, then brown, thereafter becoming greenish); dark grey cere; legs and feet yellow (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Juvenile similarly grey-brown above (though less scaled on wing-coverts) (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ) and white below like that of longer-winged and shorter-tailed <em>Polemaetus bellicosus</em> , but differs also in habitat preferences, and has slight rufous wash below ; commences moult to immature plumage in latter half of first year, with black feathering appearing on mantle and underparts, and some rufous below (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Full adult plumage not achieved until late in fourth or even fifth year (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ).

Senegambia E, discontinuously, to S Kenya (also separate populations in E South Sudan and C Ethiopia), and S to NW Angola, DRCongo, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and E & SE South Africa.

Forest and dense woodland, from extensive lowland rainforest to small patches of montane and riverine forest, and even stands of mature exotic plantations, e.g. eucalypts in S Africa (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). In NE South Africa there is a preference however for nesting in the Northern Mistbelt Forest vegetation type and a study found 82% of nests (n = 28) located in indigenous trees (2 Swatridge, C.J., Monadjem, A., Steyn, D.J., Batchelor, G.R. and Hardy, I.C.W. (2014). Factors affecting diet, habitat selection and breeding success of the African Crowned Eagle Stephanoaetus coronatus in a fragmented landscape. Ostrich. 85(1): 47–55. Close ). One record from Zimbabwe of pair nesting in large gum tree in front-lawn garden of homestead for 10+ years (3 O’Donoghue, F. (2002). Crowned Eagle breeds in garden. Honeyguide. 48(2): 249. Close ). When foraging, moves into surrounding secondary forest or dry savanna where necessary. Recorded from sea-level to at least 3300 m (4 Ash, J. S., and J. Atkins (2009). Birds of Ethiopia and Eritrea: An Atlas of Distribution. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ).

Resident and sedentary, but young are presumably dispersive to some extent (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ).

Mainly mammals, especially monkeys (Procolobus (5 Schultz, S. (2002). Population density, breeding chronology and diet of Crowned Eagles Stephanoaetus coronatus in Taï National Park, Ivory Coast. Ibis. 144(1): 135-138. Close ), Perodicticus (5 Schultz, S. (2002). Population density, breeding chronology and diet of Crowned Eagles Stephanoaetus coronatus in Taï National Park, Ivory Coast. Ibis. 144(1): 135-138. Close ), Cercopithecus, Colobus and Mandrillus spp., which rapidly descend from the forest canopy on hearing this eagle's calls) (6 Grimshaw, J. M. (1995). Birds of prey and owls of the western and northern slopes of Mt Kilimanjaro, Tanzania. Scopus 19(1): 27–37. Close ), various rodents (Cricetomys, Atherurus) (5 Schultz, S. (2002). Population density, breeding chronology and diet of Crowned Eagles Stephanoaetus coronatus in Taï National Park, Ivory Coast. Ibis. 144(1): 135-138. Close ), carnivores (Crossarchus obscurus, Nandinia binotata and Liberictus sp.) (5 Schultz, S. (2002). Population density, breeding chronology and diet of Crowned Eagles Stephanoaetus coronatus in Taï National Park, Ivory Coast. Ibis. 144(1): 135-138. Close ), and small forest antelopes (Cephalophus spp.) in lowland rainforest, or hyraxes (Dendrohyrax dorsalis) and viverrids in drier forests (7 Symes, C.T. and Antonites, A.R. (2014). Notes on African Crowned Eagle Stephanoaetus coronatus diet in savanna and forest in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Ostrich. 85(1): 85–88. Close ). Appears to be less of a specialist on primates in W Africa than in Kenya/Uganda (5 Schultz, S. (2002). Population density, breeding chronology and diet of Crowned Eagles Stephanoaetus coronatus in Taï National Park, Ivory Coast. Ibis. 144(1): 135-138. Close ). Populations in equatorial latitudes have a higher proportion of primates in their diets, whereas further south antelopes are a much more common diet component; in a study in NE South Africa 61% of identified prey remains (n = 156) corresponded to small antelopes, mostly duikers (Cephalophus natalensis and Sylvicapra grimmia) (2 Swatridge, C.J., Monadjem, A., Steyn, D.J., Batchelor, G.R. and Hardy, I.C.W. (2014). Factors affecting diet, habitat selection and breeding success of the African Crowned Eagle Stephanoaetus coronatus in a fragmented landscape. Ostrich. 85(1): 47–55. Close ). Will also take other vertebrates such as bushpigs (Potamochoerus porcus) (8 Brightman, M. (2004). Crowned Eagle preying on young bushpig. Honeyguide. 50(2): 184-185. Close ), pangolins (Manis tricuspis), forest porcupines (Atherurus africanus), domestic cats (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ), large squirrels (Protoxerus stangeri), gamebirds, pigeons and large lizards (Varanus) (5 Schultz, S. (2002). Population density, breeding chronology and diet of Crowned Eagles Stephanoaetus coronatus in Taï National Park, Ivory Coast. Ibis. 144(1): 135-138. Close ); rarely small livestock, bats (Eidolon helvum) (9 Dowsett-Lemaire, F. (2012). Aspects of vocal behaviour, including seasonality of song, of diurnal forest raptors in the Guineo-Congolian region. Bulletin of the African Bird Club 19(2):178–188. Close ), snakes (in Kenya) (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ) or carrion. Birds, including guineafowl, francolins, domestic chickens and turkeys, nesting storks and herons, and commercially bred ostrich (Struthio camelus) chicks, most frequently taken in South Africa and Zimbabwe (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ), with one record of a presumed Bycanistes hornbill in W Africa (5 Schultz, S. (2002). Population density, breeding chronology and diet of Crowned Eagles Stephanoaetus coronatus in Taï National Park, Ivory Coast. Ibis. 144(1): 135-138. Close ). Attacks human intruders at nest by striking at them with their talons (10 Steyn, P. (2001). On the rapacity of Crowned Eagles. Honeyguide. 47(1): 94-95. Close ); such instances may be source of presumably apocryphal tales of babies being snatched and fragments of human skulls being recovered in nests (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ) (but see account of 19·6-kg child being attacked, presumably as prey (11 Brightman, M. and Westrop, P. (1999). Crowned Eagle attack on an African child. Honeyguide. 45(2): 133-134. Close ) ). An extremely powerful eagle, dropping onto ground-level prey from a perch or stooping from soaring flight , but may also hunt arboreal monkeys, hyraxes and squirrels, either taking them directly or knocking them to the ground first (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Wait-and-see approach sometimes employed, searching for groups of primates and then lying in wait for them (5 Schultz, S. (2002). Population density, breeding chronology and diet of Crowned Eagles Stephanoaetus coronatus in Taï National Park, Ivory Coast. Ibis. 144(1): 135-138. Close ). Mates may combine in various aerial attack strategies and usually share prey. Often kills prey in excess of own body mass; large prey items, up to 20 kg (exceptionally even 30–50 kg; e.g. bushbuck [Tragelaphus scriptus] (10 Steyn, P. (2001). On the rapacity of Crowned Eagles. Honeyguide. 47(1): 94-95. Close ) and young kudu [T. strepsiceros] (12 Brightman, M. and Westrop, P. (1999). Further incidents of Crowned Eagle predation. Honeyguide. 45(2): 134. Close ) ), are dismembered and the pieces cached in tree forks. Adults, but not juveniles with white plumage, are taunted and threatened by monkeys.

Vocal year-round, at least in equatorial regions (e.g. SW Ghana) (9 Dowsett-Lemaire, F. (2012). Aspects of vocal behaviour, including seasonality of song, of diurnal forest raptors in the Guineo-Congolian region. Bulletin of the African Bird Club 19(2):178–188. Close ), with male giving shrill "kewee-kewee-kewee..." and female lower and mellower "kooee-kooee-kooee..." in display (mainly during the midday hours) (9 Dowsett-Lemaire, F. (2012). Aspects of vocal behaviour, including seasonality of song, of diurnal forest raptors in the Guineo-Congolian region. Bulletin of the African Bird Club 19(2):178–188. Close ), in series of 20–30 notes; male arriving at nest with prey is called by female with a shrill "kweee-kweee-kweee...", the same call being used by young begging for food (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). In some regions display calls peak during the dry season and early wet season, e.g. in Dec–May (Jul) in Liberia (13 Gatter, W. (1997). Birds of Liberia. Pica Press, Aula-Verlag and Yale University Press, Robertsbridge, UK; Wiesbaden, Germany; and New Haven, CT, USA. Close ).

Laying Oct–Dec in W Africa (specifically in Dec in Ivory Coast) (5 Schultz, S. (2002). Population density, breeding chronology and diet of Crowned Eagles Stephanoaetus coronatus in Taï National Park, Ivory Coast. Ibis. 144(1): 135-138. Close ) and Zaire; all months in Gabon and E Africa (peak Jun–Jan) (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ); Aug–Feb in Zambia and Zimbabwe (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ); and Jul–March (mainly Sept–Mar) (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ) in South Africa. Each pair may have own preferred laying cycle. Performs a regular aerial display with loud calling, the male circling very high then performing series of steep descents, before swooping upwards again (the whole repeated 7–10 times) and is sometimes joined by the female (14 Brown, L. H., E. K. Urban, and K. Newman (1982). The Birds of Africa. Volume 1. Academic Press, London, UK and New York, USA. Close ). Builds (over period of 5–6 weeks) (14 Brown, L. H., E. K. Urban, and K. Newman (1982). The Birds of Africa. Volume 1. Academic Press, London, UK and New York, USA. Close ) a massive structure of sticks (c. 150–250 cm wide and 50–300 cm deep, depending on period of use) (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ) lined with sprays of green leaves, in the main fork (but sometimes well exposed in crown) (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ) of a large forest tree, or much less regularly in isolated baobab or large eucalypt (occasionally even in quarry or on cliff) (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ), 12–40 m above ground (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ); often used over many years (even up to 50) (14 Brown, L. H., E. K. Urban, and K. Newman (1982). The Birds of Africa. Volume 1. Academic Press, London, UK and New York, USA. Close ). One remarkable record, from KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, of this species and Hieraaetus wahlbergi nesting in same tree, a 50 m-tall Eucalyptus, without any interaction (15 Demey, R. and Kirwan, G. (2005). Wahlberg's and Crowned Eagle share nest tree. Bull. African Bird Club. 12(2): 97. Close ). In dense forest, nearest neighbour distance between nests averaged 1·81 ± 0·43 km (range 1·14–2·5 km) (5 Schultz, S. (2002). Population density, breeding chronology and diet of Crowned Eagles Stephanoaetus coronatus in Taï National Park, Ivory Coast. Ibis. 144(1): 135-138. Close ). Female is often principally responsible for nest construction, but both sexes build and sometimes male may bring virtually all of the material, leaving female to assemble the structure (14 Brown, L. H., E. K. Urban, and K. Newman (1982). The Birds of Africa. Volume 1. Academic Press, London, UK and New York, USA. Close ). Usually two dull white eggs variably spotted purplish or grey (14 Brown, L. H., E. K. Urban, and K. Newman (1982). The Birds of Africa. Volume 1. Academic Press, London, UK and New York, USA. Close ) (1–2), laid at c. 3-day intervals, 60·9–75·5 mm × 50·8–57·9 mm, 87–100 g (14 Brown, L. H., E. K. Urban, and K. Newman (1982). The Birds of Africa. Volume 1. Academic Press, London, UK and New York, USA. Close ); incubation (commences with first egg in two-egg clutches) (14 Brown, L. H., E. K. Urban, and K. Newman (1982). The Birds of Africa. Volume 1. Academic Press, London, UK and New York, USA. Close ) 48–51 days (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ), with female usually responsible for 70–90%, provisioned by male (14 Brown, L. H., E. K. Urban, and K. Newman (1982). The Birds of Africa. Volume 1. Academic Press, London, UK and New York, USA. Close ); chick (95 g at age two days) (14 Brown, L. H., E. K. Urban, and K. Newman (1982). The Birds of Africa. Volume 1. Academic Press, London, UK and New York, USA. Close ) has white down and is provisioned entirely by male for first 60 days (14 Brown, L. H., E. K. Urban, and K. Newman (1982). The Birds of Africa. Volume 1. Academic Press, London, UK and New York, USA. Close ); elder chick always kills younger sibling within a few days of hatching and is able to self-feed at 25–30 days (14 Brown, L. H., E. K. Urban, and K. Newman (1982). The Birds of Africa. Volume 1. Academic Press, London, UK and New York, USA. Close ); fledging 90–125 days (typically 110–115 days), with males often leaving nest c. 10 days before females (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ); post-fledging dependence 90–350 days, so may breed only in alternate years in most areas (annual breeding appears to have been definitely recorded only in S Africa) (5 Schultz, S. (2002). Population density, breeding chronology and diet of Crowned Eagles Stephanoaetus coronatus in Taï National Park, Ivory Coast. Ibis. 144(1): 135-138. Close , 16 Malan, G. (2005). Reproductive success and nesting periodicity of a pair of African Crowned Eagles breeding in KwaZulu-Natal. Ostrich. 76 (3–4): 215-218. Close ). However, may relay due to failure at virtually any stage during breeding cycle (14 Brown, L. H., E. K. Urban, and K. Newman (1982). The Birds of Africa. Volume 1. Academic Press, London, UK and New York, USA. Close ). Success in Kenya: 0·39 young per pair/year overall (where species usually breeds just once every two years), but considered to less than half this in Zimbabwe (14 Brown, L. H., E. K. Urban, and K. Newman (1982). The Birds of Africa. Volume 1. Academic Press, London, UK and New York, USA. Close ).

Not globally threatened. Currently considered Near Threatened. CITES II. Common and widespread within extensive lowland forest habitats of W and E Africa; 1 pair/20 km on river transects; small home range of 10 km² in Kenya and Uganda, but just 6·5 km² in Ivory Coast (5 Schultz, S. (2002). Population density, breeding chronology and diet of Crowned Eagles Stephanoaetus coronatus in Taï National Park, Ivory Coast. Ibis. 144(1): 135-138. Close ); and nests 2·5–12 km apart. Also common in other forest types, but habitat often patchy, as in Kenya , Malawi or South Africa (only 100 pairs estimated for Transvaal), and in parts of range species appears to be inexplicably absent from large tracts of apparently suitable habitat (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Just two breeding records from Ethiopia (4 Ash, J. S., and J. Atkins (2009). Birds of Ethiopia and Eritrea: An Atlas of Distribution. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Occurrence in S Mali disputed and appears distinctly unlikely (17 Dowsett-Lemaire, F., and R. J. Dowsett (2005). The avifauna of the dry evergreen forests of Mali. Malimbus 27:77–111. Close ), but has only recently been recorded definitely in Benin (speculated to be a wanderer from Nigeria) (18 Dowsett, R. J., and F. Dowsett-Lemaire (2011). The avifauna of Benin: additions and corrections. Bulletin of the African Bird Club 18(2):148–167. Close ), with an earlier record (19 Claffey, P.M. (1999). Crowned Eagle Stephanoaetus coronatus and White-breasted Negro-Finch Nigrita fusconota, new to the Benin list. Malimbus. 21(1): 51-53. Close ) disputed. Vulnerable to deforestation and overhunting of prey animals, especially monkeys (9 Dowsett-Lemaire, F. (2012). Aspects of vocal behaviour, including seasonality of song, of diurnal forest raptors in the Guineo-Congolian region. Bulletin of the African Bird Club 19(2):178–188. Close ), so now rare in many parts of W Africa, where possibly already rather dependent on protected areas network (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Persecuted (adults shot or trapped and nests destroyed) (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ) in some areas of S Africa for small stock losses, but in some areas is also regarded by foresters as beneficial, as eagle predates mammals that damage young trees (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). In the Eastern Cape province, South Africa, it has persisted in many transformed and degraded areas, what has been attributed to the continued availability of a principal prey species, the hyrax Procavia capensis, and also to the ability of the eagles to respond to changes in availability by prey switching (20 Reeves, R. and Boshoff, A.F. (2016). Is diet adaptability a reason for the persistence of African Crowned Eagles Stephanoaetus coronatus in altered habitats? Ostrich. 87(1): 29–36. Close ). Not known to be affected by pesticides.