Eurasian Wigeon Mareca penelope Scientific name definitions

A buffy, medium-sized duck, the Eurasian Wigeon is an uncommon, but increasing vagrant to the new world. This species is listed in the neotropics as a rare winter visitor, with only a handful of reported sightings from northern Mexico (Howell and Webb 1995). When found in the Americas, Eurasian Wigeon are often seen associating with flocks of American Wigeon or other dabbling ducks in freshwater ponds or coastal marine environments. American and Eurasian Wigeons hybridize regularly, and hybrid individuals may occur in Mexico and Baja California. Sometimes placed in the genus Mareca, the Eurasian Wigeon forms a superspecies with the American and Chiloe Wigeons.

45–51 cm; male mostly 600–1000 g, female 500–800 g (1 Snow, D. W., and C. M. Perrins, Editors (1998). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Concise Edition. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ); wingspan 75–86 cm (1 Snow, D. W., and C. M. Perrins, Editors (1998). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Concise Edition. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Male has chestnut head and neck , with yellowish crown , sometimes has metallic dark green spot behind eyes and on throat, pinkish-grey breast , grey-vermiculated upperparts and sides, white lower breast and belly, contrasting with black surround to white-grey tail, white upperwing-coverts, elongated grey scapulars , dark green speculum edged black, grey-brown primaries and dusky grey axillaries (but note that both sexes can be much paler over both this tract and underwing-coverts  ) (2 Kemp, J.B. (1990). Underwing of Wigeon. British Birds. 83(1): 23. Close ); blue-grey bill with black tip, slate-grey legs and feet, and brown eyes; has female-like eclipse plumage , which is rich reddish chestnut, with darker upperparts than adult female, rufous flanks and contrasting white forewing. Female slightly smaller with dark head not contrasting with breast and upperparts, brown mantle , scapulars, upper breast and flanks barred pink-buff, with rest of underparts white marked darker on undertail-coverts, axillaries greyish, underwing fawn with paler markings, wing-coverts grey-brown, speculum blackish, and bill and legs duller grey-blue than in male. Juvenile similar to female, with mottled belly, while first-winter male is much like adult, although male does not acquire white forewing until second-winter, and first-winter female has less obvious whitish tips to wing-coverts than adult female.

• Gadwall x Eurasian Wigeon (hybrid) Mareca strepera x penelope
• Eurasian x American Wigeon (hybrid) Mareca penelope x americana
• Eurasian x Chiloe Wigeon (hybrid) Mareca penelope x sibilatrix
• Eurasian Wigeon x Mallard (hybrid) Mareca penelope x Anas platyrhynchos
• Eurasian Wigeon x Northern Pintail (hybrid) Mareca penelope x Anas acuta
• Eurasian Wigeon x Green-winged Teal (hybrid) Mareca penelope x Anas crecca

From Iceland and N Britain E across N Europe and N Asia to Pacific coast. In winter moves to C & S Europe, S Asia and N & C Africa, and reaches North America.

Shallow, freshwater marshes, lakes and lagoons surrounded by scattered trees or open forest during breeding season, but in winter moves to coastal marshes, freshwater and brackish lagoons, estuaries, bays and other sheltered marine localities (5 Kear, J., Editor (2005). Ducks, Geese and Swans. Volume 1: General chapters, and Species accounts (Anhima to Salvadorina). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). In survey in S Finland, occurrence of females with broods was related to emerging flies (Diptera) and habitat structure, but associations were not strong (6 Nummi, P., Paasivaara, A., Suhonen, S. and Pöysä, H. (2013). Wetland use by brood-rearing female ducks in a boreal forest landscape: the importance of food and habitat. Ibis. 155(1): 68–79. Close ). In Europe winters mainly in coastal marshes , freshwater and brackish lagoons, estuaries, bays and other sheltered marine habitats, but also recorded at inland dams and lakes, including to at least 3650 m in Ethiopia (7 Ash, J. S., and J. Atkins (2009). Birds of Ethiopia and Eritrea: An Atlas of Distribution. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ) and 2700 m in Kenya (8 Pearson, D. J., and B. S. Meadows (1992). Numbers, distribution and seasonality of Palaearctic duck in Kenya. Scopus 15:109–119. Close ).

Basically migratory, descending to lower latitudes to winter throughout most of W & C Europe, Mediterranean Basin, Middle East, N & NE Africa (S to Tanzania), Indian Subcontinent (mainly in N, where only recorded in Bhutan as recently as 1986 (9 Clements, F. A. (1992). Recent records of birds from Bhutan. Forktail 7:57–73. Close ), but S to Sri Lanka) (10 Rasmussen, P. C., and J. C. Anderton (2005). Birds of South Asia: the Ripley Guide. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Close ), mainland SE Asia (where generally uncommon) and N Borneo (11 Mann, C. F. (2008). The Birds of Borneo: An Annotated Checklist. B.O.U. Checklist 23. British Ornithologists’ Union, and British Ornithologists’ Club, Peterborough. Close ), Taiwan and Japan , more exceptionally the Mariana Is (12 Stinson, D.W., Wiles, G.J. and Reichel, J.D. (1997). Migrant land birds and water birds in the Mariana Islands. Pacific Sci. 51(3): 314–327. Close ), Palau, Yap, Chuuk, Marshall Is (13 Wiles, G.J., Worthington, D.J., Beck, R.E., Pratt, H.D., Aguon, C.F. and Pyle, R.L. (2000). Noteworthy bird records for Micronesia, with a summary of raptor sightings in the Mariana Islands, 1988-1999. Micronesica. 32(2): 257–284. Close ) and New Guinea. Some populations (e.g. British) mostly sedentary, although even these usually make short-range movements further SW (1 Snow, D. W., and C. M. Perrins, Editors (1998). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Concise Edition. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Winter range strongly dictated by the influence of climatic variables on foraging ecology, thus “cold-weather movements” are not result of falling temperatures alone (14 Dalby, L., Fox, A.D., Petersen, I.K., Delany, S. and Svenning, J.-C. (2013). Temperature does not dictate the wintering distributions of European dabbling duck species. Ibis. 155(1): 80–88. Close ). Post-breeding initially moves to moulting grounds, where breeders join immature non-breeders, and large gatherings have been noted in Estonia, S Sweden, Denmark and Netherlands (1 Snow, D. W., and C. M. Perrins, Editors (1998). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Concise Edition. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). In Finland, return migration in autumn appears to have been getting later based on study of passage dates over 30-year period since 1979, perhaps as a result of climate change (15 Lehikoinen, A., and K. Jaatinen (2012). Delayed autumn migration in northern European waterfowl. Journal of Ornithology 153(2):563–570. Close ). Breeding populations in Fennoscandia and N Russia E to Yenisey migrate to W & SW Europe, whereas those breeding in W & C Siberia winter on Caspian and Black Seas W to Mediterranean, even as far W as Tunisia (1 Snow, D. W., and C. M. Perrins, Editors (1998). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Concise Edition. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). In Old World, non-breeders have reached as far afield as Azores (at least 23 records), Madeira (very rare) Canaries (fairly regular visitor) and Cape Verdes (Dec 2004–Jan 2005) (16 Hazevoet, C. J. (2010). Sixth report on birds from the Cape Verde Islands, including records of 25 taxa new to the archipelago. Zoologia Caboverdiana 1(1):3–44. Close ), as well as on Spitsbergen and Bear I (1 Snow, D. W., and C. M. Perrins, Editors (1998). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Concise Edition. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ), in W Africa scarce from Mauritania and N Senegal to Chad, with vagrants recorded in Gambia (17 de Baerdemaeker, A., Elzerman, S.D., Venema, N. and Colley, M. (2012). Eurasian Wigeon Anas penelope, a new species for The Gambia. Malimbus. 34(2): 120–122. Close ), Ivory Coast (18 Demey, R. (2013). Recent reports. Bull. Afr. Bird Club. 20(2): 216–230. Close ), N Ghana (19 Dowsett-Lemaire, F., and R. J. Dowsett (2014). The Birds of Ghana: An Atlas and Handbook. Tauraco Press, Liège, Belgium. Close ), SW Nigeria and N Cameroon (20 Borrow, N., and R. Demey (2001). Birds of Western Africa. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ), as well as Uganda (21 Carswell, M., D. Pomeroy, J. Reynolds, and H. Tushabe (2005). The Bird Atlas of Uganda. British Ornithologists’ Club and British Ornithologists' Union, Oxford, UK. Close ) and Somalia (22 Ash, J. S., and J. E. Miskell (1998). Birds of Somalia. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ). Typically present on wintering grounds between Sept/Oct and mid Mar to early Apr in NW Europe, with departure typically occurring earlier during mild winters (1 Snow, D. W., and C. M. Perrins, Editors (1998). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Concise Edition. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ); mainly Nov–Feb in Ethiopia, although even here regularly recorded 24 Oct–24 Apr, with several records in May–Jul (7 Ash, J. S., and J. Atkins (2009). Birds of Ethiopia and Eritrea: An Atlas of Distribution. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close , 23 Urban, E. K. (1991). Palaearctic and Afrotropical ducks and geese at Gaferssa Reservoir, Ethiopia, 1964–1978. Scopus 14:92–96. Close ) and Dec to early Mar in Kenya (extreme dates mid Nov to mid Apr) (8 Pearson, D. J., and B. S. Meadows (1992). Numbers, distribution and seasonality of Palaearctic duck in Kenya. Scopus 15:109–119. Close ); at Bharatpur, in N India, arrives late Sept and departs between early Apr and mid May (24 Bhupathy, S., Vijayan, V.S. and Mathur, R. (1998). Population ecology of migratory waterfowl in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 95(4): 287–295. Close ). Occurs regularly on Atlantic and Pacific coasts of North America, as well as on Bermuda, with occasional records even further S, to Mexico (rare in S Baja California, Sonora and Tamaulipas, vagrant to Jalisco and Clipperton Atoll) and the West Indies (Bahamas, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Barbuda and Barbados), and even once in Venezuela (Mar 2002) (25 Williams, R.S.R. and Beadle, D. (2003). Eurasian Wigeon Anas penelope in Venezuela: a new bird for South America. Cotinga. 19: 71. Close ). Barbudan record involved a bird ringed on Iceland (26 Buckley, P.A., Massiah, E.B., Hutt, M.B., Buckley, F.G. and Hutt, H.F. (2009). The Birds of Barbados: An Annotated Checklist. BOU Checklist No. 24. British Ornithologists’ Union & British Ornithologists’ Club, Peterborough. Close ).

Essentially vegetarian ; leaves, stems, roots, rhizomes and seeds of grasses, sedges and aquatic vegetation, e.g. saltmarsh grass (Puccinellia maritima) (27 Larsen, J.K. (1996). Wigeon Anas penelope offsetting dependence on water by feeding in mixed-species flocks: a natural experiment. Ibis. 138(3): 555-557. Close ), Salicornia ramosissima (28 Durant, D., Kersten, M., Fritz, H., Juin, H. and Lila, M. (2006). Constraints of feeding on Salicornia ramosissima by wigeon Anas penelope: an experimental approach. Journal of Ornithology. 147(1): 1-12. Close ) and Zostera spp. (29 Mathers, R.G., Portig, A.A. and Montgomery, W.I. (1998). Distribution and abundance of Pale-bellied Brent Geese and Wigeon on Strangford Lough, Northern Ireland. Bird Study. 45(1): 18-34. Close ) in winter; occasionally takes small invertebrates, especially ducklings, which are strongly dependent on chironomids in early days of life, but quickly switch to vegetable diet (5 Kear, J., Editor (2005). Ducks, Geese and Swans. Volume 1: General chapters, and Species accounts (Anhima to Salvadorina). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close )., while adults may also feed extensively on such prey during breeding season (30 Jacobsen, O.W. (1991). Feeding behaviour of breeding Wigeon Anas penelope in relation to seasonal emergence and swarming behaviour of chironomids. Ardea. 79(3): 409-418. Close ) and has possibly been observed taking mayflies (Ephemeroptera) and caddis-flies (Trichoptera) in pre-breeding season (31 Jacobsen, O.W. (1991). Wigeon head-shaking while feeding. British Birds. 84(1): 17. Close ), and potatoes in winter (32 Kemp, J. B. (1992). Wildfowl eating potatoes. British Birds 85(9):495. Close ). Regularly uses rice fields in Japan and Korea in winter (33 Fujioka, M., S. D. Lee, M. Kurechi, and H. Yoshida (2010). Bird use of rice fields in Korea and Japan. Waterbirds 33(Special Publication 1):8–29. Close ). During cold winter weather, also seen to feed on gull droppings (34 Elkins, N. (1996). Eurasian Wigeons feeding on bird droppings. British Birds. 89(10): 451. Close ). Feeds by grazing on dry land in tight packs (more so than Anas) (5 Kear, J., Editor (2005). Ducks, Geese and Swans. Volume 1: General chapters, and Species accounts (Anhima to Salvadorina). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ), dabbling on water surface and head dipping in shallow water; appears to favour nitrogen-fertilized grasslands in early breeding season (35 Jacobsen, O.W. (1992). Factors affecting selection of nitrogen-fertilized grassland areas by breeding Wigeon Anas penelope. Ornis Scandinavica. 23: 121-131. Close ). In winter feeds both at day or night, according to tides (5 Kear, J., Editor (2005). Ducks, Geese and Swans. Volume 1: General chapters, and Species accounts (Anhima to Salvadorina). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Repeated feeding on same areas is deliberate strategy to improve their dietary quality in late winter/early spring: M. penelope selectively graze small patches, resulting in a 52% increase in leaf production over the winter and, by the end of winter, 4·75% higher protein levels compared to plants that were ungrazed (36 Mayhew, P. and Houston, D. (1999). Effects of winter and early spring grazing by Wigeon Anas penelope on their food supply. Ibis. 141(1): 80-84. Close ). Regularly consorts with other wildfowl in winter, such as Branta leucopsis (27 Larsen, J.K. (1996). Wigeon Anas penelope offsetting dependence on water by feeding in mixed-species flocks: a natural experiment. Ibis. 138(3): 555-557. Close ), Anas fabalis (37 Sutherland, W. J., and G. A. Allport (1994). A spatial depletion model of the interaction between bean geese and wigeon with the consequences for habitat management. Journal of Animal Ecology 63:51–59. Close ) and Branta bernicla (29 Mathers, R.G., Portig, A.A. and Montgomery, W.I. (1998). Distribution and abundance of Pale-bellied Brent Geese and Wigeon on Strangford Lough, Northern Ireland. Bird Study. 45(1): 18-34. Close ). Given that Branta bernicla is also heavily dependent on Zostera beds for grazing in some areas, spatial segregation between geese and ducks was studied in SW England, where it appears that B. bernicla extracts rhizomes and consumes whole plants, whereas M. penelope take floating above-ground parts of Zostera; nevertheless, despite the spatial separation, some exploitative competition must occur via the removal by geese of potential feeding resources for the ducks (38 Fox, A.D. (1996). Zostera exploitation by Brent Geese and Wigeon on the Exe Estuary, southern England. Bird Study. 43(3): 257-268. Close ).

Most characteristic is piercing, whistled “whee-OOO” by male, given both in flight, on water or while foraging, but also utters multisyllabic “wip ... wee ... wip-weu” calls in threat; female gives low purring or growled “krr”, most frequently uttered when flushed and which lacks quacking quality of many other Mareca and Anas (5 Kear, J., Editor (2005). Ducks, Geese and Swans. Volume 1: General chapters, and Species accounts (Anhima to Salvadorina). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ).

Starts Apr–Jun, varying across range according to latitude, with nests sometimes initiated in Apr in Scotland, but may not arrive on breeding grounds in N Russia until second half of May (5 Kear, J., Editor (2005). Ducks, Geese and Swans. Volume 1: General chapters, and Species accounts (Anhima to Salvadorina). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ); mean date of first laying 19–30 May in Iceland (1 Snow, D. W., and C. M. Perrins, Editors (1998). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Concise Edition. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Arrives on breeding grounds in small groups of 25–30 individuals (5 Kear, J., Editor (2005). Ducks, Geese and Swans. Volume 1: General chapters, and Species accounts (Anhima to Salvadorina). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Monogamous, with pair-bonds maintained until soon after clutch is initiated, but may then be re-established in winter (39 Amat, J.A. (1990). Age-related pair bonding by male Eurasian Wigeons in relation to courtship activity. Auk. 107(1): 197–198. Close , 5 Kear, J., Editor (2005). Ducks, Geese and Swans. Volume 1: General chapters, and Species accounts (Anhima to Salvadorina). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close , 40 Mitchell, C. (1997). Re-mating in migratory Wigeon Anas penelope. Ardea. 85(2): 275-277. Close ). Sometimes double-brooded and, more commonly, will re-lay if first clutch is lost (5 Kear, J., Editor (2005). Ducks, Geese and Swans. Volume 1: General chapters, and Species accounts (Anhima to Salvadorina). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). In single pairs or small groups (which may nest within 5 m of one another) (1 Snow, D. W., and C. M. Perrins, Editors (1998). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Concise Edition. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ), with extent of territoriality varying and females are frequently faithful to natal area (5 Kear, J., Editor (2005). Ducks, Geese and Swans. Volume 1: General chapters, and Species accounts (Anhima to Salvadorina). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ); nest is depression on ground, lined with grass, sometimes twigs (5 Kear, J., Editor (2005). Ducks, Geese and Swans. Volume 1: General chapters, and Species accounts (Anhima to Salvadorina). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ), and a thick coat of down, hidden among vegetation and usually close to water, but can be up to 250 m distant (1 Snow, D. W., and C. M. Perrins, Editors (1998). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Concise Edition. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Usually 8–9 cream- or buff-coloured eggs (6–12), size 49–60 mm × 35–42 mm, mass (in captivity) 32–47·5 g (5 Kear, J., Editor (2005). Ducks, Geese and Swans. Volume 1: General chapters, and Species accounts (Anhima to Salvadorina). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ); incubation 24–25 days by female alone (5 Kear, J., Editor (2005). Ducks, Geese and Swans. Volume 1: General chapters, and Species accounts (Anhima to Salvadorina). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ); chicks have dark or sepia-brown down above, paler below, with grey bill, olive-brown legs and feet, and brown eyes, and weighs mean 25·8 g at one day old (in captivity) (5 Kear, J., Editor (2005). Ducks, Geese and Swans. Volume 1: General chapters, and Species accounts (Anhima to Salvadorina). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ); fledging c. 40–45 days, with female remaining with brood in nursery area virtually throughout this period (5 Kear, J., Editor (2005). Ducks, Geese and Swans. Volume 1: General chapters, and Species accounts (Anhima to Salvadorina). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Breeding success variable: of 301 eggs laid in Finland, 78% hatched and 34% of young fledged (5 Kear, J., Editor (2005). Ducks, Geese and Swans. Volume 1: General chapters, and Species accounts (Anhima to Salvadorina). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ), but in another Finnish study breeding success averaged 63% (41 Nummi, P. and Pöysä, H. (1995). Breeding success of ducks in relation to different habitat factors. Ibis. 137(1): 145–150. Close ), whereas hatching success at 551 nests in Iceland in 1961–1970 averaged 68% (range 40–81%), and at 148 Scottish nests 55% hatched, 44% were predated and 1% were deserted; principal causes of failure at Icelandic nests were predation by Common Ravens (Corvus corax) and American mink (Mustela vison), followed by desertion (5 Kear, J., Editor (2005). Ducks, Geese and Swans. Volume 1: General chapters, and Species accounts (Anhima to Salvadorina). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Other potential predators of eggs and young include Hooded Crows (Corvus cornix) red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) (42 Jacobsen, O.W. and Ugelvik, M. (1992). Anti-predator behavior of breeding Eurasian Wigeon. J. Field Orn.. 63(3): 324-330. Close ). A more recent Icelandic study, centred on L Myvatn, found that mean brood size was 3·93 and a mean 2·83 young fledged per female (range 0·09–5·14), with breeding success positively related to chironomid abundance and negatively to cold and wet weather (43 Gardarsson, A. and Einarsson, A. (1997). Numbers and production of Eurasian wigeon in relation to conditions in a breeding area, Lake Myvatn, Iceland. Journal of Animal Ecology. 66: 439-451. Close ), while in S Finland number of fledglings per breeding attempt was 0·11–2·2 (44 Elmberg, J., Nummi, P., Pöysä, H. and Sjöberg, K. (2003). Breeding success of sympatric dabbling ducks in relation to population density and food resources. Oikos. 100(2): 333–341. Close ). Sexual maturity at one, occasionally two, years. Predators of adults include Gyrfalcons (Falco rusticolus) (45 Nielsen, O.K. and Cade, T.J. (1990). Seasonal changes in food habits of Gyrfalcons in NE Iceland. Ornis Scandinavica. 21: 202–211. Close ) and Western Marsh-harriers (Circus aeruginosus) (46 Fritz H., Guillemain, M. and Guérin, S. (2000). Changes in the frequency of prospecting fly-overs by Marsh Harriers Circus aeruginosus in relation to short-term fluctuations in dabbling duck abundance. Ardea. 88(1): 9–16. Close ). Annual adult survival is c. 64%, with sex ratio of adult population skewed towards adults, whereas among young it is equal, while proportion of young in winter flocks varies, as expected, from 21–46% (5 Kear, J., Editor (2005). Ducks, Geese and Swans. Volume 1: General chapters, and Species accounts (Anhima to Salvadorina). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Study of hunting returns found that proportion of juveniles decreased from 80% (females) and 74% (males) in Finland to 63% and 45% in Denmark, respectively, and estimated autumn juvenile survival as 29% for females and 22 % for males, i.e. far lower than in adults, consistent with findings for Anas crecca, and perhaps reflecting a wider pattern in dabbling ducks (47 Guillemain, M., Fox, A.D., Pöysä, H., Väänänen, V.-M., Christensen, T.K., Triplet, P., Schricke, V. and Korner-Nievergelt, F. (2013). Autumn survival inferred from wing age ratios: Wigeon juvenile survival half that of adults at best? Journal of Ornithology. 154(2): 351-358. Close ). Longevity record is 33 years and seven months (5 Kear, J., Editor (2005). Ducks, Geese and Swans. Volume 1: General chapters, and Species accounts (Anhima to Salvadorina). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ).

Not globally threatened (Least Concern). Abundant, concentrates in large numbers in wintering grounds, at which season five main populations identified, namely in NW Europe (which held 1,500,000 in 1990s, of which c. 400,000 were in British Isles, with 50,000 on Somerset Levels alone in winter 2010/11) (48 Kershaw, M. and Cranswick, P.A. (2003). Numbers of wintering waterbirds in Great Britain, 1994/1995–1998/ 1999: I. Wildfowl and selected waterbirds. Biological Conservation. 111: 91–104. Close , 49 Pitches, A. (2012). News & Comment: Mixed fortunes for wintering waterbirds. British Birds. 105(11): 692–693. Close ), Black Sea/Mediterranean (300,000), SW Asia/NE Africa (250,000), S Asia (250,000) and E Asia (500,000–1,000,000, of which most in China, with considerably smaller but increasing numbers in Korea and Japan) (5 Kear, J., Editor (2005). Ducks, Geese and Swans. Volume 1: General chapters, and Species accounts (Anhima to Salvadorina). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close , 50 Kasahara, S. and Koyama, K. (2010). Population trends of common wintering waterfowl in Japan: participatory monitoring data from 1996 to 211106111069. Orn. Sci.. 9(1): 23–36. Close , 51 Kasahara, S. and Koyama, K. (2011). [Regional population trend of common wintering waterfowl in Japan, from 1996 to 286869]. Jap. J. Orn.. 60(1): 35–51. (In Japanese with English summary.). Close ). In Europe largest numbers breed in Sweden (20,000–30,000 pairs in late 1980s, stable, and has started to winter in S of country in recent decades) (52 Nilsson, L. (2008). Changes in numbers and distribution of wintering waterfowl in Sweden during forty years, 1967–2006 [Förändringar i antal och utbredning hos övervintrande sjöfåglar i Sverige under fyrtio år 1967–2006]. Ornis Svecica 18(3):135–226. Close ) and Finland (60,000–80,000 pairs, probably increasing), with 170,000–230,000 pairs estimated in European Russia (1 Snow, D. W., and C. M. Perrins, Editors (1998). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Concise Edition. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ); numbers breeding in other European countries typically < 5000 pairs, e.g. usually < 150 pairs in British Isles (53 Holling, M., and The Rare Breeding Birds Panel (2011). Rare breeding birds in the United Kingdom in 2009. British Birds 104(9):476–537. Close ), but is expanding in range, having recently colonized Czech Republic (54 Koleček, J., Reif, J., Šťastný, K. and Bejček, V. (2010). Changes in bird distribution in a Central European country between 1985–1989 and 291911–291913. Journal of Ornithology. 151(4): 923–932. Close ). Winter 1991 census yielded 34,403 birds in Iran, 61,900 in Azerbaijan, 39,984 in Japan (quite a lot more individuals counted than in other years), and in partial counts in same year 23,355 individuals reported in India, 131,725 in Pakistan and 7946 in China. Overall numbers perhaps quite stable in recent years despite intense human pressure from hunting (c. 60,000 taken legally in UK each winter) (5 Kear, J., Editor (2005). Ducks, Geese and Swans. Volume 1: General chapters, and Species accounts (Anhima to Salvadorina). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ), recreational activities (5 Kear, J., Editor (2005). Ducks, Geese and Swans. Volume 1: General chapters, and Species accounts (Anhima to Salvadorina). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ) and drainage of habitat, partially compensated by establishment of reserves in many wetlands in W Europe, with most wintering sites in NW Europe and Mediterranean region now under some form of protection (5 Kear, J., Editor (2005). Ducks, Geese and Swans. Volume 1: General chapters, and Species accounts (Anhima to Salvadorina). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ); nevertheless, individual wintering populations have been subject to significant fluctuations, with that in NW Europe showing significant upsurge over past three decades, apparently increasing at rate of 7·5%/year, whereas Black Sea/Mediterranean population has shown rapid decline over same period, perhaps in line with decreases reported on Russian breeding grounds, with numbers in W Mediterranean having fallen by 45% and those further E by perhaps 50% since 1982 (5 Kear, J., Editor (2005). Ducks, Geese and Swans. Volume 1: General chapters, and Species accounts (Anhima to Salvadorina). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ), e.g. in Turkey, regularly in excess of 150,000 during 1960s and 1970s (exceptionally c. 459,000 in 1968/69), but just four counts > 40,000 between 1986 and 2005 (55 Kirwan, G. M., K. A. Boyla, P. Castell, B. Demirci, M. Özen, H. Welch, and T. Marlow (2008). The Birds of Turkey: The Distribution, Taxonomy and Breeding of Turkish Birds. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). An analysis of mid-January counts in W Europe during 1990–2009 shows increases in abundance in the N and E of the wintering range (Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Germany, Switzerland), stable numbers in the central range (Belgium, Netherlands, UK and France) and declining abundance in the W and S of the wintering range (Spain and Ireland) suggesting a shift in wintering distribution consistent with milder winters throughout the range (56 Fox, A.D., Dalby, L., Christensen, T.K. et al. (2016). Seeking explanations for recent changes in abundance of wintering Eurasian Wigeon (Anas penelope) in northwest Europe. Ornis Fennica. 93(1): 12–25. Close ). Winter numbers in SW Asia have also probably fallen, by up to 62% in Iran, but perhaps less elsewhere (5 Kear, J., Editor (2005). Ducks, Geese and Swans. Volume 1: General chapters, and Species accounts (Anhima to Salvadorina). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). In UK, although upward trend in numbers wintering has been recorded in recent decades, there has been a significant decline in proportion of young there and some evidence that selective hunting affects age (but not sex) ratios in winter (57 Mitchell, C., Fox, A.D., Harradine, J. and Clausager, I. (2008). Measures of annual breeding success amongst Eurasian Wigeon Anas penelope. Bird Study. 55(1): 43-51. Close ). Trends further E in Asia are poorly known. CITES III in Ghana.