Gould's Petrel Pterodroma leucoptera Scientific name definitions

30 cm; 129–260 g (1 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ); wingspan 70–71 cm. Rather small grey-and white-gadfly petrel that appears hooded in dorsal view, with dark pattern across upperwings and bold pattern on underwing, but polymorphic, with dark morph mostly sooty to dark slate-grey with white patch on lower head and some whitish marks on underwing. Nominate race  has feathers of forehead  to anterior superciliary white, with some dark slate-grey exposed bases giving this area spotted appearance, rather uniform dark slate-grey crown to ear-coverts and broad neck-sides to upper mantle  , appearing like blackish hood in dorsal or lateral views, and strongly contrasting with white foreface and throat; paler grey on lower mantle to uppertail-coverts, on scapulars and inner marginal and lesser wing-coverts, but usually darker over rest of upperwing  and uppertail, and darkest on diagonal bar from carpal to rump and on tail tip, forming typical M pattern, although can be indistinct; underwing  white with grey tips to remiges forming dark trailing edge, much broader on outer primaries, leading edge on carpal blackish grey with some white admixed, becoming more solid dark diagonal bar on central inner wing  ; dark partial hood sometimes runs well down neck-sides, but does not form complete collar, rest of underparts  white; iris blackish brown; bill black; legs and part of base of feet pale bluish with variable pinkish tinge, rest of feet blackish. Sexes alike, but males characteristically heavier than females, at least in race leucoptera and during breeding season, e.g. 165–205 g in females versus 183–260 g in males (2 O’Dwyer, T.W., Priddel, D., Carlile, N., Bartle, J.A. and Buttemer, W.A. (2006). An evaluation of three field techniques for sexing Gould’s Petrels (Pterodroma leucoptera) (Procellariidae). Emu. 106(3): 245–252. Close ). Juvenile as adult. Similar to P. defilippiana, P. cookii and P. pycrofti, but appears hooded in dorsal view, darker above than two first-named species, and lacks white wedge separating mask from neck-sides (present in P. defilippiana), while blackish bar on carpal to mid underwing is usually bolder. Race <em>caledonica</em> very like nominate, but outer rectrix extensively white, rather than mostly grey, and is marginally larger, especially in wing (mean 228 mm versus 224 in nominate) and tail length (mean 94·8 mm versus 93·4 mm) (1 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ).

Editor's Note: This article requires further editing work to merge existing content into the appropriate Subspecies sections. Please bear with us while this update takes place.

Forms part of assemblage often referred to as subgenus Cookilaria. Often treated as conspecific with P. brevipes, which is slightly paler and with less extensive hood (1), has broader dark trailing edge of wing (1), lacks paler inner webs of primaries (1), and has shorter legs (2) and longer wing (2). Recent analysis of plumage alone found no consistent differences between nominate and race caledonica (3 Portelli, D.J. (2016). Plumage variation in Gould’s petrel (Pterodroma leucoptera): an evaluation of the taxonomic validity of P. l. caledonica (Imber & Jenkins 1981). Notornis. 63(3–4): 130–141. Close ), although see below under Descriptive notes for suggested size differences. Two subspecies recognized.

Editor's Note: Additional distribution information for this taxon can be found in the 'Subspecies' article above. In the future we will develop a range-wide distribution article.

Marine and generally pelagic , rarely approaching land except at colonies. Breeds on oceanic islands, on steep forested slopes and in gullies with palm forest. To 650 m in New Caledonia (caledonica) (1 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ).

Pelagic. A study combining observational data and use of geolocators elucidated the movements of both caledonica and leucoptera. While breeding, tracked individuals of both races forage within the Tasman Sea and S of the Australian continent, with forays W into the Indian Ocean pre-laying. During the breeding season (including the pre-laying, incubation and chick-rearing periods) the core foraging areas of leucoptera were close to Australia, whereas those of caledonica were midway between Australia and New Zealand. Post-breeding, both taxa migrated to the tropical Pacific Ocean. The foraging range of caledonica was then concentrated in equatorial waters of the E Pacific (90–140˚ W), predominately at latitudes S of the equator, in waters influenced by the W-flowing South Equatorial Current. In contrast, the foraging range of leucoptera was concentrated in the C Pacific Ocean (140–170˚ W), several thousand km W of that of caledonica, and N of the equator, in waters primarily influenced by the North Equatorial Current. When migrating across the S Pacific, both races travelled 20,000 km or more in an anticlockwise direction, moving E at high southern latitudes (45–55˚ S) and returning at lower equatorial latitudes. Observational data identified the general pattern of migration and foraging areas, whereas data from geolocators provided details of routes and timing of migration, core foraging ranges, and the marked spatial and temporal segregation between the two races (6 Priddel, D., Carlile, C., Portelli, D., Kim, Y., O’Neill, L., Bretagnolle, V., Ballance, L.T., Phillips, R.A., Pitman, R.L. and Rayner, M.J. (2014). Pelagic distribution of Gould’s Petrel (Pterodroma leucoptera): linking shipboard and onshore observations with remote-tracking data. Emu. 114(4): 360–370. Close ). There are records from New Zealand (e.g., of caledonica in Jan, Mar–May) (7 Powlesland, R.G. and Powlesland, M.H. (1994). Seabirds found dead on New Zealand beaches in 1993, with a review of Sterna albostriata, S. caspia and S. striata recoveries, 1943 – 1992. Notornis. 41(4): 275–286. Close , 8 Taylor, G.A. (1999). Seabirds found dead on New Zealand beaches in 1996. Notornis 46(4):434–445. Close , 9 Palma, R.L. and Tennyson, A.J.D. (2005). Designation of a lectotype and clarification of authorship and date of publication for the New Caledonian petrel (Pterodroma leucoptera caledonica). Notornis. 52(4): 247–248. Close ) and Galapagos, but also (much more rarely) W into SE Indian Ocean, with 26 records of this species, assumed to be of the nominate race, off SW Australia in Dec 1994 (10 Surman, C.A., Cheshire, N.G. and Wooller, R.D. (1997). Gould’s Petrel Pterodroma leucoptera off south-western Australia. Marine Orn.. 25(1): 70–71. Close , 11 Surman, C.A. and Wooller, R.D. (2000). Seabirds off the south-western coast of Australia. Emu. 100(4): 312–317. Close ). Records of caledonica at sea exist from Windward Is and Fiji#R, while two birds perhaps intermediate between P. l. caledonica and P. brevipes have been recorded off New Britain and Makira (12 Dutson, G. (2011). Birds of Melanesia: The Bismarcks, Solomons, Vanuatu and New Caledonia. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ).

Very little known, but apparently mostly squid and other cephalopods (mainly ommastrephids) (1 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ); small fish (especially myctophids) (1 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ) also recorded, including Vinciguerria (13 Pitman, R.L. and Ballance, L.T. (1990). Daytime feeding by Leach’s Storm-Petrel on a midwater fish in the Eastern Tropical Pacific. Condor. 92(2): 527–530. Close ) and Electrona rissoi (14 Imber, M.J. (1996). The food of Cook’s Petrel Pterodroma cookii during its breeding season on Little Barrier Island, New Zealand. Emu. 96(3): 189–194. Close ), and sea skaters (Halobates spp.) appear to represent an incidental food item (15 Cheng, L., L. B. Spear, and D. G. Ainley (2010). Importance of marine insects (Heteroptera: Gerridae, Halobates spp.) as prey of eastern tropical Pacific seabirds. Marine Ornithology 38(2):91–95. Close ). Most food apparently taken by surface-seizing and contact-dipping (16 Ribic, C. A., D. G. Ainley, and L. B. Spear (1997). Seabird associations in Pacific equatorial waters. Ibis 139:482–487. Close ), but relatively few detailed data concerning techniques employed (1 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Sometimes forms loose, interspecific flocks (17 Wood, K.A. (1990). Seasonal abundance and marine habitats of Procellaria fulmarine and gadfly petrels off central New South Wales. Notornis 37(2):81–105. Close ), in the E tropical Pacific sometimes consorting with P. externa and P. nigripennis (16 Ribic, C. A., D. G. Ainley, and L. B. Spear (1997). Seabird associations in Pacific equatorial waters. Ibis 139:482–487. Close ).

Two principal vocalizations described for nominate and caledonica, namely a thin, cicada-like “zit-zit-zit”, which is usually given in flight, and a shrill “peep-peep-peeoo” (1 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ).

Starts Nov/Dec, with first return to colonies in Oct and pre-laying exodus of 2–3 weeks (1 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Colonial and strictly nocturnal at breeding sites (1 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ), with translocated young on Boondelbah I (New South Wales) showing strong natal philopatry, although a small number has returned to breed on Cabbage Tree I (18 Priddel, D., Carlile, N. and Wheeler, R. (2006). Establishment of a new breeding colony of Gould’s petrel (Pterodroma leucoptera leucoptera) through the creation of artificial nesting habitat and the translocation of nestlings. Biological Conservation. 128: 553–563. Close ); nests on ground in rocky crevices or in soil where sheltered by dense foliage, e.g. below palms, within Ficus buttresses, or among tussocks of Lomandra longifolia on Cabbage Tree I (19 Priddel, D. and Carlile, N. (1997). Boondelbah Island confirmed as a second breeding locality for Gould’s Petrel Pterodroma leucoptera leucoptera. Emu. 97(3): 245–248. Close ), and nest chamber is sparsely lined with palm fronds (1 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Single white egg  , mean size 49·8 mm × 37·8 mm (1 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ); incubation probably 6–7 weeks, in three shifts, the first by male lasting c. 17 days (20 O’Dwyer, T.W., Buttemer, W.A., Priddel, D. and Downing, J.A. (2006). Prolactin, body condition and the cost of good parenting: an interyear study in a long-lived seabird, Gould’s Petrel (Pterodroma leucoptera). Functional Ecology. 20: 806–811. Close ); chick has dark grey down and is given on average 13·6 g of food per meal, with the young being fed every second day between 42 and 18 days before fledging, every third day thereafter until 11 days before fledging, whereupon feeding ceases (21 Priddel, D. and Carlile, N. (2001). A trial translocation of Gould’s Petrel (Pterodroma leucoptera leucoptera). Emu. 101(1): 79–88. Close ); fledging probably c. 11–12 weeks, mostly mid–late Mar (nominate) or Apr (caledonica), reaching peak weight (c. 360 g or 135% of that of adult) at 50–60 days (20 O’Dwyer, T.W., Buttemer, W.A., Priddel, D. and Downing, J.A. (2006). Prolactin, body condition and the cost of good parenting: an interyear study in a long-lived seabird, Gould’s Petrel (Pterodroma leucoptera). Functional Ecology. 20: 806–811. Close ). Breeding success and age of first breeding basically unknown, except from data collected on Cabbage Tree I (nominate), where no birds have been retrapped at the colony younger than three years and ten months old (1 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ) and breeding success has been successfully enhanced, through targeted conservation measures, from < 20% to at least 50% (22 Carlile, N., D. Priddel, F. Zino, C. Natividad, and D. B. Wingate (2003) A review of four successful recovery programmes for threatened sub-tropical petrels. Marine Ornithology 31: 185–192. Close ), while of chicks from the same population translocated to the new breeding site of Boondelbah I, 95% and 100%, respectively, fledged in the two seasons this was attempted (18 Priddel, D., Carlile, N. and Wheeler, R. (2006). Establishment of a new breeding colony of Gould’s petrel (Pterodroma leucoptera leucoptera) through the creation of artificial nesting habitat and the translocation of nestlings. Biological Conservation. 128: 553–563. Close ). In another study of nominate leucoptera, designed to discover if there are any negative effects on breeding success due to disturbance by researchers, of 25 eggs in nests visited by the scientists, 16 hatched successfully (64%), whereas overall hatching success at the colony in the same year was 54% (n = 216), while all young from both groups of nests fledged successfully (23 O’Dwyer, T.W., Buttemer, W.A. and Priddel, D. (2006). Investigator disturbance does not influence chick growth or survivorship in the threatened Gould’s Petrel Pterodroma leucoptera. Ibis. 148(2): 368–372. Close ). Nest failure can be due to accidental breakage as well as egg abandonment by birds whose partner fails to return from foraging trip (20 O’Dwyer, T.W., Buttemer, W.A., Priddel, D. and Downing, J.A. (2006). Prolactin, body condition and the cost of good parenting: an interyear study in a long-lived seabird, Gould’s Petrel (Pterodroma leucoptera). Functional Ecology. 20: 806–811. Close ). Known to have lived up to 40 years in wild#R. Peregrine Falcons (Falco peregrinus) and Swamp Harriers (Circus approximans) are known or potential predators of adults of the present species in parts of its range (24 Bretagnolle, V. and Shirihai, H. (2010). A new taxon of Collared Petrel Pterodroma brevipes from the Banks Islands, Vanuatu. Bull. Brit. Orn. Club. 130(4): 286–301. Close ), with sporadic predation by raptors or owls of nominate leucoptera recorded on Cabbage Tree I (22 Carlile, N., D. Priddel, F. Zino, C. Natividad, and D. B. Wingate (2003) A review of four successful recovery programmes for threatened sub-tropical petrels. Marine Ornithology 31: 185–192. Close ), where other natural predators are more significant (see Status and Conservation).

VULNERABLE. Previously considered Near Threatened (when treated as conspecific with P. brevipes); both leucoptera and caledonica are separately treated as Vulnerable in Australia (25 Baker, G. B., R. Gales, S. Hamilton, and V. Wilkinson (2002). Albatrosses and petrels in Australia: a review of their conservation and management. Emu 102(1):71–97. Close , 26 Szabo, J.K., Butchart, S.H.M., Possingham, H.P. and Garnett, S.T. (2012). Adapting global biodiversity indicators to the national scale: a Red List Index for Australian birds. Biological Conservation. 148(1): 61–68. Close ). Population rather small. Nominate race until recently bred only on Cabbage Tree I  , off E New South Wales, where numbers low but apparently stable at fewer than 250 pairs (producing < 50 young) per year in early 1990s, versus 2000 individuals in 1970, thereafter recovering to 750 pairs (producing c. 300 fledglings per annum) in late 1990s (27 Priddel, D. and Carlile, N. (2000). Decline and recovery of the endangered Gould’s Petrel Pterodroma leucoptera leucoptera. P. 143 in:. Close ) and subsequently 800–1025 pairs during first decade of 21st century (23 O’Dwyer, T.W., Buttemer, W.A. and Priddel, D. (2006). Investigator disturbance does not influence chick growth or survivorship in the threatened Gould’s Petrel Pterodroma leucoptera. Ibis. 148(2): 368–372. Close )#R; no alien predators, but European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) introduced in 1906 (now eradicated) (28 Priddel, D., Carlile, N. and Wheeler, R. (2000). Eradication of European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) from Cabbage Tree Island, NSW, Australia, to protect the breeding habitat of Gould’s petrel (Pterodroma leucoptera leucoptera). Biological Conservation. 94: 115–125. Close ); island used briefly for target practice in 1943; island protected as John Gould Nature Reserve in 1954. Many birds incapacitated after becoming entangled with seeds of birdlime tree (Pisonia umbellifera), while predation by Australian Ravens (Corvus coronoides) and Pied Currawongs (Strepera graculina) presents additional constraints (29 Priddel, D. and Carlile, N. (1995). Mortality of adult Gould’s Petrels Pterodroma leucoptera leucoptera at the nesting site on Cabbage Tree Island, New South Wales. Emu 95(4): 259–264. Close , 27 Priddel, D. and Carlile, N. (2000). Decline and recovery of the endangered Gould’s Petrel Pterodroma leucoptera leucoptera. P. 143 in:. Close ); as a result, efforts have been made to remove birdlime trees (since 1992) within the petrel’s breeding habitat and to control Pied Currawongs, while rabbits were eradicated from Cabbage Tree I in 1997 (29 Priddel, D. and Carlile, N. (1995). Mortality of adult Gould’s Petrels Pterodroma leucoptera leucoptera at the nesting site on Cabbage Tree Island, New South Wales. Emu 95(4): 259–264. Close , 22 Carlile, N., D. Priddel, F. Zino, C. Natividad, and D. B. Wingate (2003) A review of four successful recovery programmes for threatened sub-tropical petrels. Marine Ornithology 31: 185–192. Close ). Following intra-island trials on Cabbage Tree I (21 Priddel, D. and Carlile, N. (2001). A trial translocation of Gould’s Petrel (Pterodroma leucoptera leucoptera). Emu. 101(1): 79–88. Close ), translocation programme commenced in 1999/2000, to augment new colony on 9-ha Boondelbah I, 1·4 km distant, with total of 200 nestlings transported to the new location (1 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ), and 50 pairs are now established at this new site#R, which appears to have been colonized (naturally) in the early to mid 1990s (19 Priddel, D. and Carlile, N. (1997). Boondelbah Island confirmed as a second breeding locality for Gould’s Petrel Pterodroma leucoptera leucoptera. Emu. 97(3): 245–248. Close ). In addition, also recently found breeding at three sites on Broughton I (1·3 km²) and Little Broughton I (0·3 km²), 12 km NE of Cabbage Tree I#R. Little information available for caledonica, which is known to breed at six sites in New Caledonia between Monts Dzumac and Poya, may number 1000–10,000 pairs in this region, with perhaps additional undiscovered colonies in this region, as well as a population on Tana I (Vanuatu) and small numbers on Raivave (Austral Is) (1 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Like most ground-nesting petrels, may be subject to heavy predation in most of range, e.g. by feral pigs in New Caledonia (1 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Conservation priorities include further information on breeding grounds, numbers, productivity and population trends, and an artificial nestbox programme has been usefully implemented (on Cabbage Tree and Boondelbah Is) to assist the conservation of nominate leucoptera (30 Priddel, D., and N. Carlile (1995) An artificial nest box for burrow-nesting seabirds. Emu 95: 290–294. Close , 19 Priddel, D. and Carlile, N. (1997). Boondelbah Island confirmed as a second breeding locality for Gould’s Petrel Pterodroma leucoptera leucoptera. Emu. 97(3): 245–248. Close , 18 Priddel, D., Carlile, N. and Wheeler, R. (2006). Establishment of a new breeding colony of Gould’s petrel (Pterodroma leucoptera leucoptera) through the creation of artificial nesting habitat and the translocation of nestlings. Biological Conservation. 128: 553–563. Close ).