Rufous Spinetail Synallaxis unirufa Scientific name definitions

The Rufous Spinetail is a skulking songbird of montane northwestern South America. Distributed along the Andes from Venezuela south to Peru, this furnariid inhabits the undergrowth of forest between 1700 and 3200 meters in elevation. A standard Synallaxis spinetail in structure, it is rufous throughout with black lores. Interestingly, it is more easily confused with Rufous Wren (Cinnycerthia unirufa) than it is with any spinetail, but the wren has barring in the wings and tail, and has a rounded tail. Difficult to see, especially in the dense bamboo undergrowth that it prefers, the Rufous Spinetail can be found by listening for its song, a single-note, upsplurred squeak that is repeated frequently.

16–18 cm; 17–21 g. Relatively large and uniformly brightly colored Synallaxis. Nominate is almost entirely bright reddish rufous  ; forehead slightly paler, loral area sooty blackish  , concealed bases of feathers in center of throat blackish; tail long, graduated, 10 rectrices with shafts slightly stiffened, tips pointed, outer webs slightly disintegrated; iris dark brown to dark reddish-brown; bill black, base of lower mandible sometimes grey to silvery or pale mauvish pink; tarsus and toes gray to dark gray. Sexes alike. Juvenile has brown upperparts, head sometimes tinged olivaceous, underparts paler than adult, darkest on breast.

Song of each subspecies fairly distinctive, suggesting possible species-level differences (1 Boesman, P. (2016). Notes on the vocalizations of Rufous Spinetail (Synallaxis unirufa). HBW Alive Ornithological Note 103. In: Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. Close ), e.g., meridana differs from all others in its series of almost identical notes resulting in a length ratio of 1.06–1.4 (score 3) and on average highest number of notes (score 1), and from nominate and ochrogaster also in smaller frequency range (score 1 or 2); munoztebari differs from nominate/ochrogaster in shorter “long notes” resulting in smaller length ratio (score 2), a higher number of notes (ns[1]) and a smaller frequency range (score 1 or 2); ochrogaster differs from nominate in song having fewer notes (score 1) and a more disyllabic long note, also in having an alternative vocalization (score 1 or 2). Plumages, however, often very similar; proposal (2 Restall, R.L., Rodner, C. and Lentino, M. (2006). Birds of Northern South America: an Identification Guide. Vols. 1 and 2. Christopher Helm, London. Close , 3 López-O., J.P., Avendaño, J.E., Gutiérrez-Pinto, N. and Cuervo, A.M. (2014). The birds of the Serranía de Perijá: the northernmost avifauna of the Andes. Orn. Colombiana 14: 62–93. Close , 4 Ellery, T. (2015). The Serranía del Perijá - an exciting new destination in Colombia. Neotrop. Birding 17: 58–67. Close ) that munoztebari may merit species rank not well supported by specimen evidence, but further study needed. Birds in Cajamarca (northern Peru), duller and less rufous than any others, apparently represent an undescribed subspecies.

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EBIRD GROUP (MONOTYPIC)

Rufous Spinetail (unirufa) Synallaxis unirufa unirufa Scientific name definitions

• eBird map
• 17 photos
• 17 recordings

Distribution

Andes of Colombia (south possibly from Chocó in western range, from Antioquia in central, and in Cundinamarca and western Casanare in eastern), Ecuador (on western slope south only to western Cotopaxi) and extreme northern Peru (north and west of Rio Marañón).

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EBIRD GROUP (MONOTYPIC)

Rufous Spinetail (munoztebari) Synallaxis unirufa munoztebari Scientific name definitions

• eBird map
• 18 photos
• 19 recordings

Distribution

Sierra de Perijá of northeastern Colombia and northwestern Venezuela.

Identification Summary

Subspecies munoztebari is also paler, no black on throat, faint buff supercilium and forehead.

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EBIRD GROUP (MONOTYPIC)

Rufous Spinetail (meridana) Synallaxis unirufa meridana Scientific name definitions

• eBird map
• 1 photos
• 5 recordings

Distribution

Andes of western Venezuela (Trujillo south to Táchira) and north-central Colombia (extreme northwestern part of eastern range in Norte de Santander).

Identification Summary

Subspecies meridana is paler, black bases of throat feathers more visible, tail slightly longer.

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EBIRD GROUP (MONOTYPIC)

Rufous Spinetail (ochrogaster) Synallaxis unirufa ochrogaster Scientific name definitions

• eBird map
• 1 photos
• 7 recordings

Distribution

Peruvian Andes south of Rio Marañón from Amazonas south to northern Cuzco (Cordillera Vilcabamba).

Identification Summary

Subspecies <em>ochrogaster</em> is palest of all below, especially in center of belly.

Sister to Black-throated Spinetail (Synallaxis castanea), based on genetic data (5 Derryberry, E. P., S. Claramunt, G. Derryberry, R. T. Chesser, J. Cracraft, A. Aleixo, J. Pérez-Emán, J. V. Remsen, Jr., and R. T. Brumfield. (2011). Lineage diversification and morphological evolution in a large-scale continental radiation: the Neotropical ovenbirds and woodcreepers (Aves: Furnariidae). Evolution 65(10):2973–2986. Close ); both probably also close to Rusty-headed Spinetail (Synallaxis fuscorufa), and the three have been considered conspecific, but substantial vocal differences exist.

The Rufous Spinetail has a disjunct distribution that includes the Sierra de Perijá of northwestern Venezuela and northeastern Colombia, as well as the Andes of western Venezuela (Trujillo south to Táchira), Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru, extending to northern Cuzco (Cordillera Vilcabamba).

Montane evergreen forest and elfin forest; undergrowth and edge of humid cloudforest, often in Chusquea bamboo thickets, sometimes in tall second growth. Mainly 1,700–3,700 m, locally down to 1,200 m.

Arthropods  . Usually in pairs, occasionally in mixed-species flocks. Gleans items from foliage and small branches within 1–2 m of ground, occasionally higher, to 4 m.

Vocal Development

Little information. An adult with young uttered thin stutters composed of a few notes.

Vocal Array

Substantial vocal differences exist over the extensive range of this species, with repertoire of each taxon fairly distinctive. We therefore treat them separately:

** meridana

Song. A series of 2 or 3 almost identical nasal notes, the first one slightly shorter than the second and third. Maximum frequency of all notes is similar (1.8‒2.3 kHz) , sometimes first higher, sometimes last higher (1 Boesman, P. (2016). Notes on the vocalizations of Rufous Spinetail (Synallaxis unirufa). HBW Alive Ornithological Note 103. In: Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. Close ). Song phrase is typically repeated many times with intervals of about 1 s. This is the commonest vocalization.

Alternate song. A series of 2 or 3 notes that are longer than in Song and second note often disyllabic. Phrase may also end with a short rattle. This vocalization is apparently (only?) given in early morning and has been called 'Dawn song' (6 Vaurie, C. and Schwartz, P. (1972). Morphology and vocalizations of Synallaxis unirufa and Synallaxis castanea (Furnariidae, Aves), with comments on other Synallaxis. Amer. Mus. Novit.. 2483: 1-13. Close ).

Kit. A very short, upward inflected note kit, typically repeated a few times at irregular intervals.

** munoztebari

Song. A series of 2, occasionally 3 notes, the first much shorter. Maximum frequency of notes is almost identical (1 Boesman, P. (2016). Notes on the vocalizations of Rufous Spinetail (Synallaxis unirufa). HBW Alive Ornithological Note 103. In: Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. Close ). Song phrase is typically repeated many times with intervals of about 1 s. This is the commonest vocalization.

Pit. A very short, upward inflected note pit!, typically repeated a few times at irregular intervals. Note is sometimes doubled.

Long call. A long series of identical upslurred notes. This vocalization is rarely heard.

** unirufa

Song. A single long nasal note, often preceded by one (occasionally two) short introductory notes. Maximum frequency of introductory note notably lower-pitched than long note (1 Boesman, P. (2016). Notes on the vocalizations of Rufous Spinetail (Synallaxis unirufa). HBW Alive Ornithological Note 103. In: Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. Close ). Song phrase is typically repeated many times with intervals of about 1 s.

Alternate song. One or two long rising notes, the second higher-pitched than the first.

Chik. A short note chik, typically repeated a few times at irregular intervals. Note is sometimes doubled.

** ochrogaster

Song. A single note, occasionally preceded by a short introductory note. Maximum frequency of introductory note notably lower-pitched than long note. Song phrase is typically repeated many times with intervals of about 1 s.

Alternate song. A rising series of 2-4 notes, repeated many times with intervals of a few seconds.

Chik. A short note chik, typically repeated a few times at irregular intervals. Note is sometimes doubled.

Geographic Variation

From the above, it is clear that there is considerable geographic variation in the voice of this complex. Differences in Song of meridanus versus Black-throated Spinetail (Synallaxis castanea) were used to support the latter's treatment as a distinct species (6 Vaurie, C. and Schwartz, P. (1972). Morphology and vocalizations of Synallaxis unirufa and Synallaxis castanea (Furnariidae, Aves), with comments on other Synallaxis. Amer. Mus. Novit.. 2483: 1-13. Close ), without however observing that intraspecific vocal differences between meridanus and ochrogaster were equally significant and in fact of the largest of any Synallaxis species (7 O'Shea, B. (2009). Evolution of vocal signals in a neotropical avian lineage. LSU Doctoral Dissertations. 3211. Close ). A brief analysis of all Rufous Spinetail taxa revealed further vocal differentiation (1 Boesman, P. (2016). Notes on the vocalizations of Rufous Spinetail (Synallaxis unirufa). HBW Alive Ornithological Note 103. In: Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. Close ), although meridanus is possibly vocally the most divergent of the complex and about equidistant to Synallaxis unirufa (and Rusty-headed Spinetail (Synallaxis fuscorufa)). This may also explain the fact that meridanus is genetically apparently closer to Synallaxis castanea than to other taxa in the Synallaxis unirufa complex (8 Harvey, M. G., G. A. Bravo, S. Claramunt, A. M. Cuervo, G. E. Derryberry, J. Battilana, G. F. Seeholzer, J. S. McKay, B. C. O'Meara, B. C. Faircloth, S. V. Edwards, J. Pérez-Emán, R. G. Moyle, F. H. Sheldon, A. Aleixo, B. T. Smith, R. T. Chesser, L. F. Silveira, J. Cracraft, R. T. Brumfield, and E. P. Derryberry (2020). The evolution of a tropical biodiversity hotspot. Science 370:1343–1348. Close )). An in depth study is clearly required to gain a better understanding of the taxonomic relationships in this complex.

Phenology

Little information. Rufous Spinetail is vocal throughout the year, but there may be periods of higher vocal activity. Whether both Song and Alternate Song are uttered throughout the year requires further study.

Daily Pattern of Vocalizing

Rufous Spinetail is quite a vocal species and can be heard throughout the day, although mainly during the morning.

Places of Vocalizing

Sings and calls from inside dense undergrowth in wet montane forest and forest edge, typically remaining well hidden.

Sex Differences

No information.

Social Content and Presumed Functions of Vocalizations

Little information. Birds typically respond to playback of Song, but exact function of Song and Alternate song not well understood. Other vocalizations are rarely heard and their function requires further field study.

None documented.

Fledglings in April in Colombia. Presumably monogamous. No further information.

Peter Boesman started birding at a young age in his home country of Belgium. He soon birded all over Europe, and shared his bird knowledge by writing articles, co-authoring a book about the birds of Flanders and joining the Belgian Rarities Committee—all while completing his MSc in both Engineering sciences and Music. In the early 90s, he moved to the Neotropics where he developed a special interest in bird sounds. He pioneered sharing bird song recordings by making multimedia productions and his MP3 collections were the reference for many Neotropical countries in the pre-internet days. Back in Belgium, he continues to focus on recording and studying bird sounds, and he has been especially prolific in analyzing bird vocalizations to support taxonomy and identification. Peter has written more than 1,000 voice accounts for Birds of the World, 400+ notes on the vocal distinctiveness of taxa, and several bird sound-related scientific papers. Peter’s entire bird sound collection – about 30,000+ recordings from about half the world’s bird species – are now all available at the Macaulay Library. He continues to provide expert voice accounts for Birds of the World.