White-capped Albatross Thalassarche cauta Scientific name definitions

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White-capped Albatross (cauta)

90–100 cm (1 Shirihai, H. (2007). A Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife. The Birds and Mammals of the Antarctic Continent and the Southern Ocean. Second edition. A. & C. Black, London, UK. Close ); male 3900–5100 g, female 3200–4400 g (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ); 210–260 cm (1 Shirihai, H. (2007). A Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife. The Birds and Mammals of the Antarctic Continent and the Southern Ocean. Second edition. A. & C. Black, London, UK. Close ). Largest and stoutest-billed of mollymawks , with most extensive white underwing and diagnostic squarish black patch where leading edge meets body. Adult has white cap contrasting with grey upper face  and especially with blackish ‘eyebrow’ , narrow white crescent framing rear of eye, the pale grey tinge often extending diffusely over lower face and hindneck to uppermost mantle, becoming dark grey on lower mantle and back, blackish grey on scapulars and upperwing (dark upperparts browner in worn plumage), outer primaries with white shafts, rump and uppertail-coverts white; tail dark grey; underwing clean white with diagnostic small blackish patch at very base of leading edge and especially narrow dark fringe on both leading and trailing edges, slightly broader at carpal bend, narrow on wingtip because of broadly white bases to primaries, can be virtually absent at proximal base of leading edge; underparts white; iris dark brown; bill grey (can have slight greenish or olive tinge), with yellow tip  and often yellow base to culmen, culminicorn usually has narrow black frame separating it from latericorn and forehead, often visible only at base, narrow and inconspicuous yellow along cutting edges, more noticeable narrow orange line at very base of mandible; pink gape line (usually concealed); legs pale pinkish with some grey tones. Sexes similar, but female is marginally smaller in most measurements (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ); > 80% of adults can be sexed based on wing chord, maximum head length and bill measurements (3 Double, M.C., Gales, R., Reid, T., Brothers, N. and Abbott, C.L. (2003). Morphometric comparison of Australian Shy and New Zealand White-capped Albatrosses. Emu. 103(4): 287–294. Close ). Albinos have been recorded  . Juvenile very similar but distinguished by grey bill with black tip , darker and more brownish tinge on neck, especially at rear and on sides, where may form collar, sometimes contrasting with paler head, but little or no contrast between cap and face. Separated from similar species  by head and bill colour; <em>T. salvini</em> has less white crown, thus appears less capped, although forecrown still contrasts with foreface, and pale grey extends through face and foreneck giving it more hooded appearance, bill greyish to horn , with culmen and tip of maxilla cream to straw-yellow, mandible with blackish tip, the lower ridge tends to be cream-coloured and with narrow orange line at very base. T. eremita is strongly hooded, with darker grey of head  and neck  extending over entire cap, usually paler on central foreneck, bill strong but shorter, brighter than that of salvini and present species, yellow with brownish to olive tinge, culmen purer straw-yellow to rich cream-yellow, sometimes rather yolk-yellow overall, the mandible with black tip and narrow orange line at base; both salvini and present species have darker undersurface to primaries, thus dark margin to underwing looks broader at wingtip.

White-capped Albatross (steadi)

90–100 cm (1 Shirihai, H. (2007). A Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife. The Birds and Mammals of the Antarctic Continent and the Southern Ocean. Second edition. A. & C. Black, London, UK. Close ); 2600–5300 g (1 Shirihai, H. (2007). A Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife. The Birds and Mammals of the Antarctic Continent and the Southern Ocean. Second edition. A. & C. Black, London, UK. Close ). Mid-sized black, slate-grey and white albatross with black thumbmark at base of leading edge of underwing  . Bold white cap contrasting with pale silver-grey  face  and darker brow  . Some adults can have very white back with brown tips to feathers; mantle  dark grey and tail black; body all white; bill  pale grey/blue with yellow tip  . Sexes alike, but male averages larger in most measurements (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close , 1 Shirihai, H. (2007). A Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife. The Birds and Mammals of the Antarctic Continent and the Southern Ocean. Second edition. A. & C. Black, London, UK. Close ). Juvenile  has grey bill with dark tip, which lightens with age, and darker head than adult, with grey extending to collar. Very similar to slightly smaller <em>T. cauta</em> , but present species has paler face  and less yellow on culmen. <em>T. salvini</em> and, especially, <em>T. eremita</em> have darker grey heads  and lack white cap.

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White-capped Albatross (cauta)

White-capped Albatross (steadi)

White-capped Albatross (cauta)

S Australasian waters, breeding on three small islands off Tasmania (Albatross, Mewstone and Pedra Branca) (11 ACAP (2009). ACAP Species Assessment: Shy Albatross Thalassarche cauta. URL: http://www.acap.aq/index.php/en/acap-species (download Oct 2013). Close ).

White-capped Albatross (steadi)

S Atlantic and S Indian Oceans to Australasian waters, breeding in Auckland and Antipodes Is.

White-capped Albatross (cauta)

Marine ; less pelagic than many albatrosses, frequently occurring over continental shelf and even close inshore. Breeds on offshore islands occupying slopes or flatter ground, in areas with boulders but generally sparse vegetation.

White-capped Albatross (steadi)

Marine ; less pelagic than many albatrosses, frequently occurring over continental shelf and even close inshore. Breeding colonies  generally located on rock islands, in sheltered crevices and well-vegetated slopes  .

White-capped Albatross (cauta)

Clear segregation between birds from different Tasmanian colonies during breeding season, thus breeders on Albatross I, at W end of Bass Strait, forage over Australian continental shelf or slope waters off NW Tasmania, while those nesting on Pedra Branca, off S Tasmania, feed E of Tasmania, between the colony and SE edge of continental shelf, generally within 265 km of the colonies (12 Brothers, N., Gales, R., Hedd, A. and Robertson, G. (1998). Foraging movements of the Shy Albatross Diomedea cauta breeding in Australia; implications for interactions with longline fisheries. Ibis. 140(3): 446–457. Close ). Post-breeding adults also generally remain comparatively close to breeding areas, over continental shelf and slope off SE Australia and generally continue to visit colony through much of the non-breeding period (13 Hedd, A. and Gales, R. (2005). Breeding and overwintering ecology of Shy Albatrosses in southern Australia: year-round patterns of colony attendance and foraging-trip durations. Condor. 107(2): 375–387. Close ), whereas young birds, in first five years of life, are considerably more mobile, with those from Mewstone colony, close to Pedra Branca, moving as far as South Africa and Namibia (14 Brothers, N.P., Reid, T.A. and Gales, R.P. (1997). At-sea distribution of Shy Albatrosses Diomedea cauta cauta derived from records of band recoveries and colour-marked birds. Emu. 97(3): 231–239. Close ), where concentrates off S & W coasts, and birds from Albatross I have been recovered off Western Australia (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Uncommon at sea around Macquarie I between austral summer and autumn (15 Clarke, R.H. and Schulz, M. (2005). Land-based observations of seabirds off sub-Antarctic Macquarie Island during 2002 and 2003. Marine Ornithology 33(1):7–17. Close ). Either this species or T. steadi is commonly observed off Amsterdam and St Paul in boreal winter (1 Shirihai, H. (2007). A Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife. The Birds and Mammals of the Antarctic Continent and the Southern Ocean. Second edition. A. & C. Black, London, UK. Close , 16 Duriez, O., Jornvall, H. and Shirihai, H. (2005). Birds and wildlife of the French subantarctic islands: Crozet, Kerguelen and Amsterdam & St Paul. Dutch Birding 27(2):87–115. Close ), with single records from Zanzibar (17 Safford, R.J. and Basque, R. (2007). Records of migrants and amendments to the status of exotics on Mauritius in 1989–93. Bull. Afr. Bird Club. 14(1): 26–35. Close ) and Mauritius (the latter could also have been T. salvini) (18 Archer, A.L. and Iles, D.B. (1998). New bird records for Unguja (Zanzibar Island). Bull. Brit. Orn. Club. 118(3): 166–172. Close ), and ‘shy-type’ albatrosses have also been recorded in reasonable numbers in S & SW Atlantic, off Tristan da Cunha (19 Ryan, P. G. (1991). The impact of the commercial lobster fishery on seabirds at the Tristan da Cunha Islands, South Atlantic Ocean. Biological Conservation 57:339–350. Close ), South Georgia (20 Prince, P. A., and J. P. Croxall (1996). The birds of South Georgia. Bulletin of the British Ornithologists’ Club 116(2):81–104. Close ), Falklands (21 White, R.W., Gillon, K.W. and Black, A.D. (2000). The dispersion of albatross species in the waters of the Falkland Islands. P. 151 in:. Close ), Argentina (22 Seco Pon, J.P. and Tamini, L. (2013). New records of shy-type albatrosses Thalassarche cauta/T. steadi off the Argentine Continental Shelf. Revista Brasileira de Ornitologia. 21(4): 263–268. Close ), Uruguay (23 Jiménez, S., A. Domingo, A. Marquez, M. Abreu, A. D’Anatro, and A. Pereira (2009). Interactions of long-line fishing with seabirds in the southwestern Atlantic Ocean, with a focus on White-capped Albatrosses (Thalassarche steadi). Emu 109(4):321–326. Close ) and S Brazil, exceptionally N to Bahia (24 Lima, P.C., Grantsau, R., Rocha Lima, R.C.F. and Sanos, S.S. (2004). Primeiro registro para o nordeste brasileiro do albatroz-de-cabeça-cinza (Diomedea c. cauta Gould, 1841). Atualidades Orn.. 118: 3. Close ); most of these records apparently involve steadi, but there are some claims of the present species, although doubts persist (25 Gianuca, D., Peppes, F.V. and Neves, T. (2011). New records of “shy-type” albatrosses Thalassarche steadi/cauta in Brazil. Revista Brasileira de Ornitologia. 19(4): 545–551. Close ). Status in New Zealand waters also unclear due to extreme difficulty of separating this species from T. steadi (26 Buurman, D. and Shirihai, H. (2003). Kaikoura, New Zealand: the world’s no.1 site for seabirds and marine mammals. Birding World. 16(4): 161–172. Close ). One banded bird from Albatross I recovered in N New Zealand. Records in N Hemisphere off Pacific coast of North America (California, Aug–Sept 1999; Washington, Jan 2000; Oregon, Oct 2001) (27 Howell, S. N. G. (2012). Petrels, Albatrosses, and Storm-Petrels of North America: A Photographic Guide. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, USA. Close ), as well as in N Red Sea (Eilat, Israel, Feb–Mar 1981) and off Somalia (11º N, Sept 1986) (28 Ash, J. S., and J. E. Miskell (1998). Birds of Somalia. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ).

White-capped Albatross (steadi)

Tracking studies, bird band recoveries and DNA-based identification of bycatch specimens have confirmed that the species forages in Tasmanian water and South African  /Namibian waters, and immatures are now thought to occur regularly throughout the S Atlantic and SW Indian Oceans. Thus, either this species or T. cauta is commonly observed off Amsterdam and St Paul in boreal winter (1 Shirihai, H. (2007). A Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife. The Birds and Mammals of the Antarctic Continent and the Southern Ocean. Second edition. A. & C. Black, London, UK. Close , 16 Duriez, O., Jornvall, H. and Shirihai, H. (2005). Birds and wildlife of the French subantarctic islands: Crozet, Kerguelen and Amsterdam & St Paul. Dutch Birding 27(2):87–115. Close ), with single records from Zanzibar (17 Safford, R.J. and Basque, R. (2007). Records of migrants and amendments to the status of exotics on Mauritius in 1989–93. Bull. Afr. Bird Club. 14(1): 26–35. Close ) and Mauritius (the latter could also have been T. salvini) (18 Archer, A.L. and Iles, D.B. (1998). New bird records for Unguja (Zanzibar Island). Bull. Brit. Orn. Club. 118(3): 166–172. Close ), and ‘shy-type’ albatrosses have also been recorded in reasonable numbers in S & SW Atlantic, off Tristan da Cunha (19 Ryan, P. G. (1991). The impact of the commercial lobster fishery on seabirds at the Tristan da Cunha Islands, South Atlantic Ocean. Biological Conservation 57:339–350. Close ), South Georgia (20 Prince, P. A., and J. P. Croxall (1996). The birds of South Georgia. Bulletin of the British Ornithologists’ Club 116(2):81–104. Close , 29 Phalan, B., Phillips, R.A. and Double, M.C. (2004). A White-capped Albatross, Thalassarche [cauta] steadi, at South Georgia: first confirmed record in the south-western Atlantic. Emu. 104(4): 359–361. Close ), Falklands (21 White, R.W., Gillon, K.W. and Black, A.D. (2000). The dispersion of albatross species in the waters of the Falkland Islands. P. 151 in:. Close ), Argentina (22 Seco Pon, J.P. and Tamini, L. (2013). New records of shy-type albatrosses Thalassarche cauta/T. steadi off the Argentine Continental Shelf. Revista Brasileira de Ornitologia. 21(4): 263–268. Close ) (in which country there is one definite—specimen—record of steadi) (30 Savigny, C. and Carbajal, M. (2015). El Albatros Corona Blanca (Thalassarche steadi) (Falla, 1933) en la República Argentina. Primer registro confirmado por espécimen y notas sobre su distribución e identificación en el campo. Nótulas Faunísticas. 180: 1–9. Close ), Uruguay (23 Jiménez, S., A. Domingo, A. Marquez, M. Abreu, A. D’Anatro, and A. Pereira (2009). Interactions of long-line fishing with seabirds in the southwestern Atlantic Ocean, with a focus on White-capped Albatrosses (Thalassarche steadi). Emu 109(4):321–326. Close ) and S Brazil (where steadi also recently confirmed from a specimen) (31 Pereira, A., Daudt, N.W., Nuss, A., Tavares, M. and Carlos, C.J. (2016). The first confirmed record of the White-capped Albatross Thalassarche steadi in Brazil. Revista Brasileira de Ornitologia. 24(3): 286–289. Close ), exceptionally N to Bahia (24 Lima, P.C., Grantsau, R., Rocha Lima, R.C.F. and Sanos, S.S. (2004). Primeiro registro para o nordeste brasileiro do albatroz-de-cabeça-cinza (Diomedea c. cauta Gould, 1841). Atualidades Orn.. 118: 3. Close ); as mentioned, most of records of ‘shy-type’ albatrosses do apparently involve steadi (including a bird attending a colony of T. melanophris on South Georgia in Feb 2003 and 2004) (29 Phalan, B., Phillips, R.A. and Double, M.C. (2004). A White-capped Albatross, Thalassarche [cauta] steadi, at South Georgia: first confirmed record in the south-western Atlantic. Emu. 104(4): 359–361. Close ), but there are some claims of T. cauta, although doubts generally persist concerning these (25 Gianuca, D., Peppes, F.V. and Neves, T. (2011). New records of “shy-type” albatrosses Thalassarche steadi/cauta in Brazil. Revista Brasileira de Ornitologia. 19(4): 545–551. Close ). One N Hemisphere record, an adult collected off Washington state in Sept 1951 (27 Howell, S. N. G. (2012). Petrels, Albatrosses, and Storm-Petrels of North America: A Photographic Guide. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, USA. Close ).

White-capped Albatross (cauta)

Mostly cephalopods (Nototodarus sloani, Sepioteuthis australis) and fish (Sardinops neopilchardus, Engraulis australis, Trachurus declivis); also fish offal, barnacles and other crustaceans; study of chick diet on Albatross I (Tasmania) found that fish (especially Trachurus declivis and Emmelichthys nitidus) dominated by weight (89%), with cepahalopods comprising most of the remainder (10%) (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Obtains food by surface-seizing or diving, often from air in shallow plunge (latter usually < 5 seconds), and most dives (87%) are within 3·5 m of surface, but reaching maximum of 7·4 m (32 Hedd, A., Gales, R., Brothers, N. and Robertson, G. (1997). Diving behaviour of the Shy Albatross Diomedea cauta in Tasmania: initial findings and dive recorder assessment. Ibis. 139(3): 452–460. Close ). Has been recorded taking Trachurus declivis directly in flight low over water (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Some feeding occurs at night. Often feeds in company of other Procellariiformes, and sometimes follows cetaceans. Despite its name, attends fishing boats, where competes greedily for food.

White-capped Albatross (steadi)

Dietary information much less detailed than for T. cauta. Main foods include, fish  , cephalopods, crustaceans and tunicates. Generally feeds by surface-seizing, but may undertake shallow surface-dives. Regularly follows ships and fish-processing discharge  (33 Petyt, C. (1995). Behaviour of seabirds around fishing trawlers in New Zealand subantarctic waters. Notornis. 42(2): 99–115. Close ) apparently comprises a significant proportion of the species’ diet. Has been observed associating with other seabirds and dusky dolphins (Lagenorhynchus obscurus) (34 Hawke, D.J. and Dobinson, J. (2001). Some seabird associations with dusky dolphins (Lagenorhynchus obscurus) at Kaikoura and with orca (Orcinus orca) at Nelson, New Zealand. Notornis 48(1):56–58. Close ).

White-capped Albatross (cauta)

Typical array of croaks, groans and wails (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Differences between this species and other members of the ‘shy albatross’ group, if any, have yet to be clearly established and require further research (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ).

White-capped Albatross (steadi)

No known differences in vocalizations  between present species and T. cauta (1 Shirihai, H. (2007). A Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife. The Birds and Mammals of the Antarctic Continent and the Southern Ocean. Second edition. A. & C. Black, London, UK. Close ).

White-capped Albatross (cauta)

Annual in most instances, starting Sept, with egg-laying mostly in second half of this month, hatching mostly first half of Dec and fledging and colony desertion in late Apr (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). No data concerning permanence of pair-bond (1 Shirihai, H. (2007). A Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife. The Birds and Mammals of the Antarctic Continent and the Southern Ocean. Second edition. A. & C. Black, London, UK. Close ). Forms colonies of variable density; nest  is large mound of mud, guano, feathers, grass and roots (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Single white egg with reddish-brown spots at large end (1 Shirihai, H. (2007). A Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife. The Birds and Mammals of the Antarctic Continent and the Southern Ocean. Second edition. A. & C. Black, London, UK. Close ), size 95–121 mm × 60–94 mm (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ); incubation  68–75 days with stints of 1–7 days (but rarely > 5 days) (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ); chicks  have white down, brooded and guarded c. 3–4 weeks (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ), thereafter fed comparatively small meals of 372 g, every 22 hours at equal rates by males and females (though latter undertake longer foraging trips) (13 Hedd, A. and Gales, R. (2005). Breeding and overwintering ecology of Shy Albatrosses in southern Australia: year-round patterns of colony attendance and foraging-trip durations. Condor. 107(2): 375–387. Close ), with mean meal size increasing but feeding rate decreasing with time, and receiving an estimated 44·9 kg of food over entire period (35 Hedd, A., Gales, R. and Brothers, N. (2002). Provisioning and growth rates of Shy Albatrosses at Albatross Island, Tasmania. Condor. 104(1): 12–29. Close ); fledging c. 112–136 (mean 127) days at 5–5·7 kg; male chicks are fed c. 10 days longer than females, receive 27% more food (mean meal size 396 g versus 345 g in females), grow faster, and attain higher peak and fledging masses (35 Hedd, A., Gales, R. and Brothers, N. (2002). Provisioning and growth rates of Shy Albatrosses at Albatross Island, Tasmania. Condor. 104(1): 12–29. Close ). Fledging success varies between 22% and 100% (35 Hedd, A., Gales, R. and Brothers, N. (2002). Provisioning and growth rates of Shy Albatrosses at Albatross Island, Tasmania. Condor. 104(1): 12–29. Close ). Chicks may become heavily infested, and probably weakened, by ticks (Ixodes auritulus) (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Returns to colony at age 2–3 years and reaches sexual maturity at 5–6 years (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ).

White-capped Albatross (steadi)

Breeding frequency and season poorly known, but recent indications are that it breeds biennially, with annual probability of breeding estimated at 0·68 (0·58–0·81). Eggs usually laid mid Nov and hatch in Feb; chicks thought to fledge in mid Aug, though a fledging period of Jun–Jul may be more likely. Permanence of pair-bonds unknown (1 Shirihai, H. (2007). A Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife. The Birds and Mammals of the Antarctic Continent and the Southern Ocean. Second edition. A. & C. Black, London, UK. Close ). Loosely colonial; nest  a mound of mud  , guano, tussock grass, herbs, feathers and other material (1 Shirihai, H. (2007). A Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife. The Birds and Mammals of the Antarctic Continent and the Southern Ocean. Second edition. A. & C. Black, London, UK. Close ). Single whitish egg  , with reddish-brown spots at large end; size similar to that of T. cauta, 74·1–118·8 mm × 63·7–74·1 mm (36 Robertson, C.J.R., Robertson, G.G. and Bell, D. (1997). White-Capped Albatross (Thalassarche steadi) breeding at Chatham Islands. Notornis. 44(3): 156–158. Close ); chicks  have white down  ; incubation and fledging periods unknown (1 Shirihai, H. (2007). A Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife. The Birds and Mammals of the Antarctic Continent and the Southern Ocean. Second edition. A. & C. Black, London, UK. Close ). No information concerning either juvenile survival or age of first breeding is available. Adult survival (based on mark-recapture data) estimated at 0·96 (0·91–1·00).

White-capped Albatross (cauta)

Not globally threatened. Currently treated as Near Threatened. Was considered Vulnerable in Australia (37 Baker, G. B., R. Gales, S. Hamilton, and V. Wilkinson (2002). Albatrosses and petrels in Australia: a review of their conservation and management. Emu 102(1):71–97. Close ). Population decimated around turn of century by plume hunters, especially off Tasmania, where only c. 300 nests by 1909; previously c. 3300 pairs at three colonies (Albatross I, Mewstone and Pedra Branca), increasing to 5000 pairs, 7000 pairs and 200–250 pairs, respectively, in 1995 (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ) and even more recently these totals were revised to 5200 pairs, 7600–12,400 pairs and 130–170 pairs, respectively, giving an overall total of 15,350 pairs and 60,000–70,000 individuals. Population on Pedra Branca may have always been small, but it appears that competition for nesting space with Australasian Gannets (Morus serrator) may steadily be reducing number of fledglings produced each year: chick production on Pedra Branca fell from over 100 to just 31 between 1993 and 2007, representing a decrease of c. 9% per year. Suffered substantial mortality at commercial fishing grounds, but benefitted from recent ban in New Zealand waters of trawlers using antiquated cable system. Thus, although ‘shy-type’ albatrosses (probably mainly T. cauta) comprised > 12% of seabirds caught by Japanese tuna longliners in Australian waters in 1989–995 (up to 900 birds per year) (38 Klaer, N. and Polacheck, T. (1997). By-catch of albatrosses and other seabirds by Japanese longline fishing vessels in the Australian Fishing Zone from April 1992 to March 1995. Emu. 97(2): 150–167. Close ), Japanese fishing effort ceased in 1997 and current domestic effort is concentrated further N, where likelihood of encountering albatrosses is much lower. Currently, more limited overlap between distribution of adults and Australian longline fishing effort (39 Brothers, N.P. and Foster, A.B. (1997). Seabird catch rates: an assessment of causes and solutions in Australia’s domestic tuna longline fishery. Marine Orn.. 25(1): 37–42. Close , 40 Hedd, A., Gales, R. and Brothers, N. (1998). Shy’s and hooks: Overlap of Australian Shy Albatrosses and longline fisheries. Ostrich. P. 237 in:. Close ) (total impact of trawl fisheries unknown, though could account for 75% of mortalities) (41 Baker, G.B., Double, M.C., Gales, R., Tuck, G.N., Abbott, C.L., Ryan, P.G., Petersen, S.L., Robertson, C.J.R. and Alderman, R. (2007). A global assessment of the impact of fisheries-related mortality on shy and white-capped albatrosses: conservation implications. Biological Conservation. 137: 319–333. Close ), but juveniles from Mewstone population, at least, forage in waters off South Africa, bringing them into contact with several fisheries that pose greater threat, but no evidence that shy-type albatrosses other than steadi have been taken as bycatch in these waters (42 Abbott, C.L., Double, M.C., Gales, R., Baker, G.B., Lashko, A., Robertson, C.J.R. and Ryan, P.G. (2006). Molecular provenance analysis for shy and white-capped albatrosses killed by fisheries interactions in Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. Conservation Genetics. 7: 531–542. Close ).

White-capped Albatross (steadi)

Not globally threatened. Currently treated as Near Threatened. Annual breeding population estimated at c. 100,000 pairs in 2012 (versus estimates of 70,000–80,000 pairs in 1992–1994), with colonies on Disappointment I, Adams I and Auckland I, all in Auckland group, and Bollons I (50–100 pairs, versus just 20 pairs in mid 1990s) (43 Tennyson, A., Imber, M. and Taylor, R. (1998). Numbers of Black-browed Mollymawks (Diomedea m. melanophrys) and White-capped Mollyrnawks (D. cauta steadi) at the Antipodes Islands in 1994-95 and their population trends in the New Zealand region. Notornis. 45(3): 157–166. Close ) in Antipodes group (with suspicions of breeding on Windward I) (44 Clark, G. and Robertson, C.J.R. (1996). New Zealand White-Capped Mollymawks (Diomedea cauta steadi) breeding with Black-browed Mollymawks (D. melanophrys melanophrys) at Antipodes Islands, New Zealand. Notornis. 43(1): 1–6. Close ), with some 95% of global population breeding on Disappointment. One pair bred on Forty-Fours (Chatham Is) in Dec 1991 and Nov/Dec 1996 (36 Robertson, C.J.R., Robertson, G.G. and Bell, D. (1997). White-Capped Albatross (Thalassarche steadi) breeding at Chatham Islands. Notornis. 44(3): 156–158. Close ). ‘Shy-type’ albatrosses recorded in SW Atlantic for many years; most birds recorded are immature, hindering specific identification, but genetic evidence from bird on South Georgia confirmed species as T. steadi (29 Phalan, B., Phillips, R.A. and Double, M.C. (2004). A White-capped Albatross, Thalassarche [cauta] steadi, at South Georgia: first confirmed record in the south-western Atlantic. Emu. 104(4): 359–361. Close ). Annual estimates of breeding pairs in 2007–2011 appeared to indicate very rapid population decline, but inter-annual variability and larger numbers breeding in 2012 cast some doubt on this. Need for accurate trend information highlighted by estimates of 8000 individuals taken annually as bycatch in longline and trawl fisheries, but others suggest that > 17,000 birds die per year, with c. 30% of this in New Zealand fisheries, although this percentage is apparently declining, and lack of data concerning cryptic mortality make these estimates very uncertain. Also most frequently caught species in pelagic tuna longline operations off South Africa, with an estimated 7000–11,000 killed in South African pelagic longline fishery in 1998–2000 and, in 2005, c. 500–600 ‘shy-type’ albatrosses were killed. In South African demersal trawl fishery, observer data from 2004–2005 produced an estimate of 7700 ‘shy-type’ albatrosses killed annually, and subsequent DNA analysis indicated that all were T. steadi (42 Abbott, C.L., Double, M.C., Gales, R., Baker, G.B., Lashko, A., Robertson, C.J.R. and Ryan, P.G. (2006). Molecular provenance analysis for shy and white-capped albatrosses killed by fisheries interactions in Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. Conservation Genetics. 7: 531–542. Close ). Since introduction of mandatory permit requirements in Aug 2006, whereby all vessels must deploy a bird streamer line, bycatch rate has decreased, but further data collection is required to establish new catch estimate (45 Watkins, B.P., Petersen, S.L. and Ryan, P.G. (2008). Interactions between seabirds and deep-water hake trawl gear: an assessment of impacts in South African waters. Animal Conservation. 11: 247–254. Close ). Impact of large distant-water fleets of Japan, Taiwan and Korea largely unknown, but Japanese data from 2001–2002 indicate that > 10% of recorded albatross mortalities were ‘shy-type’ (41 Baker, G.B., Double, M.C., Gales, R., Tuck, G.N., Abbott, C.L., Ryan, P.G., Petersen, S.L., Robertson, C.J.R. and Alderman, R. (2007). A global assessment of the impact of fisheries-related mortality on shy and white-capped albatrosses: conservation implications. Biological Conservation. 137: 319–333. Close ). In Uruguayan longline fleet operating in SW Atlantic, ‘shy-type’ albatrosses comprised 25% of all birds observed in association with vessels, mostly immatures; five individuals caught as bycatch were confirmed as T. steadi, but numbers caught are not sufficient to predict an overall bycatch level for this fleet (23 Jiménez, S., A. Domingo, A. Marquez, M. Abreu, A. D’Anatro, and A. Pereira (2009). Interactions of long-line fishing with seabirds in the southwestern Atlantic Ocean, with a focus on White-capped Albatrosses (Thalassarche steadi). Emu 109(4):321–326. Close ). Commercial exploitation of squid or fish reserves in Bass Strait could pose threat through direct competition for food. On Auckland I, nesting area was significantly reduced during 1972–1982 because of interference by pigs, and these and feral cats may also take small numbers of chicks (46 Flux, I.A. (2002). New Zealand white-capped mollymawk (Diomedea cauta steadi) chicks eaten by pigs (Sus scrofa). Notornis. 49(3): 175–176. Close ).