Southern Pochard Netta erythrophthalma Scientific name definitions

Southern Pochard is an enigmatic species of waterfowl that is patchily distributed and difficult to observe throughout its South American range.  This polytypic species is also found in Africa, where it is much more common.  Populations have declined greatly in South America and is now most often found in eastern Brazil.  When feeding, Southern Pochards both dive and dabble. They prefer large freshwater and brackish lakes where they hide among stands of emergent wetland vegetation.

48–51 cm (1 Kear, J., Editor (2005). Ducks, Geese and Swans. Volume 1: General chapters, and Species accounts (Anhima to Salvadorina). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ); male 592–1010 g, female 484–1018 g (2 Brown, L. H., E. K. Urban, and K. Newman (1982). The Birds of Africa. Volume 1. Academic Press, London, UK and New York, USA. Close ). Broad white wing band  , conspicuous in flight  . Male has slight peak to rear of crown ; has no eclipse plumage, but during breeding season  has purplish-black head and neck, glossy black breast and rest of body rather uniform dark brown, with olive-brown mantle, fulvous abdomen, dark brown tail and rest of upperwing olive-brown; bill bluish grey with black nail, legs and feet  bluish grey and blackish, respectively, and irides red. Female differs in that head , crown, hindneck and nape are medium brown, becoming umber on cheeks, with whitish markings at base of bill and crescent behind eye, buff-brown vermiculations on upperparts, fulvous flanks and white-mottled undertail-coverts; bill slate-grey and irides brown. Female N. peposaca of South America lacks white facial markings, while whitish facial markings that occur in some female Aythya spp., e.g. A. affinis, are confined to bill base; in Africa, compare female Oxyura maccoa, which has horizontal white facial streaks (3 Jaramillo, A. (2003). A Field Guide to the Birds of Chile Including the Antarctic Peninsula, the Falkland Islands and South Georgia. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Juvenile resembles female , but top of head more brownish; whitish facial markings less pronounced; body coloration lighter brown, although young male (separable at c. 4 months) (4 Alvarenga, H.M.F. (1990). Novos registros e expansões geográficas de aves no leste do Estado de São Paulo. Ararajuba 1: 115-117. In Portuguese. Close ) has lower neck, breast and abdomen darker. Subspecies <em>brunnea</em> paler and browner.

Editor's Note: This article requires further editing work to merge existing content into the appropriate Subspecies sections. Please bear with us while this update takes place.

Editor's Note: Additional distribution information for this taxon can be found in the 'Subspecies' article above. In the future we will develop a range-wide distribution article.

Large bodies of rather deep, permanent or temporary, standing waters (including sewage ponds) (5 Dowsett, R. J., D. R. Aspinwall, and F. Dowsett-Lemaire (2008). The Birds of Zambia. Tauraco Press & Aves, Liège, Belgium. Close ) from sea level to c. 3030 m (Africa) (6 Ash, J. S., and J. Atkins (2009). Birds of Ethiopia and Eritrea: An Atlas of Distribution. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ); shallow marshes, lakes and pools with abundant submerged vegetation up to 3650 m (South America), but has also recently started to utilize reservoirs in Brazil and uses rice fields in Venezuela (1 Kear, J., Editor (2005). Ducks, Geese and Swans. Volume 1: General chapters, and Species accounts (Anhima to Salvadorina). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ).

Mainly sedentary, but subject to some dispersive movements during local dry season. This particularly affects S African birds, which move N and concentrate in areas of suitable habitat as far N as Kenya (where noticeable influx in Oct–Feb and one recovery of South African bird in Nov) (7 Lewis, A. D., and D. E. Pomeroy (1989). A Bird Atlas of Kenya. A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam, the Netherlands. Close ), but more regularly to Zimbabwe, Zambia (where South African-rung birds recovered in Apr, Jun–Aug and Oct) (5 Dowsett, R. J., D. R. Aspinwall, and F. Dowsett-Lemaire (2008). The Birds of Zambia. Tauraco Press & Aves, Liège, Belgium. Close ), Botswana and S Mozambique (1 Kear, J., Editor (2005). Ducks, Geese and Swans. Volume 1: General chapters, and Species accounts (Anhima to Salvadorina). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). However, in Malawi, considered to be mainly resident and subject to probably only local movements (8 Dowsett-Lemaire, F., and R. J. Dowsett (2006). The Birds of Malawi: An Atlas and Handbook. Tauraco Press & Aves, Liège, Belgium. Close ). Race brunnea is common migrant N to Ethiopia (where just one, uncertain, record of breeding) and Eritrea, though recorded in all months except Jun (6 Ash, J. S., and J. Atkins (2009). Birds of Ethiopia and Eritrea: An Atlas of Distribution. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ), and is occasionally recorded in S Somalia (Feb, May–Aug and Dec) (9 Ash, J. S., and J. E. Miskell (1998). Birds of Somalia. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ). Exceptionally, adult female in S Israel in Apr–May 1998 (10 Shirihai, H. (1998). The first Southern Pochard Netta erythrophthalma in Israel and the Western Palearctic. Sandgrouse. 22(2): 131-133. Close ). Seasonal movements, if any, poorly known in South America, although suspected to occur within Brazil (1 Kear, J., Editor (2005). Ducks, Geese and Swans. Volume 1: General chapters, and Species accounts (Anhima to Salvadorina). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ).

Chiefly seeds but also roots and vegetative parts of aquatic plants (including water lilies, bladderwort, duckweeds, bulrushes, rice) (2 Brown, L. H., E. K. Urban, and K. Newman (1982). The Birds of Africa. Volume 1. Academic Press, London, UK and New York, USA. Close , 1 Kear, J., Editor (2005). Ducks, Geese and Swans. Volume 1: General chapters, and Species accounts (Anhima to Salvadorina). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ), grasses and sedges; also aquatic invertebrates (molluscs, insects, crustaceans). Ten birds collected in Malawi had been feeding predominantly on Nymphaea and, to lesser extent, Typha seeds (8 Dowsett-Lemaire, F., and R. J. Dowsett (2006). The Birds of Malawi: An Atlas and Handbook. Tauraco Press & Aves, Liège, Belgium. Close ). Feeds by diving, head dipping and upending, and by dabbling on surface , often at water’s edge. Diurnal foraging is norm, but occasionally feeds at night (1 Kear, J., Editor (2005). Ducks, Geese and Swans. Volume 1: General chapters, and Species accounts (Anhima to Salvadorina). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Usually occurs in pairs and small groups, but larger numbers gather post-breeding to moult (especially in Africa, where such congregations regularly number 1000–7500 birds), and frequently consorts with other ducks (1 Kear, J., Editor (2005). Ducks, Geese and Swans. Volume 1: General chapters, and Species accounts (Anhima to Salvadorina). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ).

Most data pertain to African race brunnea: male vocalizations include a soft, almost hissing, vibrant “quack”, a “prerr ... prerr ... prerr” in flight and various calls during courtship displays, especially a deep, low, croaking “phreeeooo” and a mechanical “eerooow”; female utters a nasal, downward-inflected “krrrrow” that is frequently repeated, a threatening “quarrrk” and a harsh “rrr-rrrr” when inciting male to copulate (2 Brown, L. H., E. K. Urban, and K. Newman (1982). The Birds of Africa. Volume 1. Academic Press, London, UK and New York, USA. Close , 1 Kear, J., Editor (2005). Ducks, Geese and Swans. Volume 1: General chapters, and Species accounts (Anhima to Salvadorina). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ).

Season variable according to locality and water levels, but mainly towards end of local wet season across Africa (brunnea), e.g. Jan, Mar–May in SW Cape, May–Jan (peak Sept) in E Cape, mainly Dec–Apr (peak Feb) in Transvaal, Feb–Jun (peak Feb) in Orange Free State, Feb–Mar in Namibia, Dec–Jul and Sept in Botswana (11 Bell, C.G.V. (1997). The Southern Pochard and the msasa tree: an analogy. Honeyguide. 43(1): 15-18. Close ), Feb–Oct in Zimbabwe, Dec–Aug in Zambia (5 Dowsett, R. J., D. R. Aspinwall, and F. Dowsett-Lemaire (2008). The Birds of Zambia. Tauraco Press & Aves, Liège, Belgium. Close ), Feb–Sept in Malawi (8 Dowsett-Lemaire, F., and R. J. Dowsett (2006). The Birds of Malawi: An Atlas and Handbook. Tauraco Press & Aves, Liège, Belgium. Close ), Apr in Tanzania, May–Jul in Kenya (2 Brown, L. H., E. K. Urban, and K. Newman (1982). The Birds of Africa. Volume 1. Academic Press, London, UK and New York, USA. Close ), and Jun and Nov in Uganda (12 Carswell, M., D. Pomeroy, J. Reynolds, and H. Tushabe (2005). The Bird Atlas of Uganda. British Ornithologists’ Club and British Ornithologists' Union, Oxford, UK. Close ); very few data from South America (nominate), but nests with eggs in Mar–Apr in São Paulo (SE Brazil) (4 Alvarenga, H.M.F. (1990). Novos registros e expansões geográficas de aves no leste do Estado de São Paulo. Ararajuba 1: 115-117. In Portuguese. Close ) and male in breeding condition in Jul in N Venezuela (13 Hilty, S. L. (2003). Birds of Venezuela. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Pair-bonds presumed to be seasonal, though specific duration unclear, with male sometimes deserting during incubation but occasionally remaining with female throughout brood-rearing period; monogamous (1 Kear, J., Editor (2005). Ducks, Geese and Swans. Volume 1: General chapters, and Species accounts (Anhima to Salvadorina). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). In single pairs; nest is basin-shaped depression (175–280 mm by 100–230 mm) (2 Brown, L. H., E. K. Urban, and K. Newman (1982). The Birds of Africa. Volume 1. Academic Press, London, UK and New York, USA. Close ) constructed by female alone (2 Brown, L. H., E. K. Urban, and K. Newman (1982). The Birds of Africa. Volume 1. Academic Press, London, UK and New York, USA. Close ), lined with grass, reed stems, grey-fawn down and some feathers, on ground, usually close to or over water in dense vegetation. Clutch 5–15 creamy white to pale brown eggs with pinkish tinge, size 50·8–59·6 mm × 40·1–46·5 mm, mass 59 g (brunnea) (2 Brown, L. H., E. K. Urban, and K. Newman (1982). The Birds of Africa. Volume 1. Academic Press, London, UK and New York, USA. Close ) or 51·7–54·6 mm × 38·8–39·4 mm (nominate) (4 Alvarenga, H.M.F. (1990). Novos registros e expansões geográficas de aves no leste do Estado de São Paulo. Ararajuba 1: 115-117. In Portuguese. Close ); incubation 23–28 days (perhaps sometimes just 20–21 days), by female alone, commencing when clutch complete (2 Brown, L. H., E. K. Urban, and K. Newman (1982). The Birds of Africa. Volume 1. Academic Press, London, UK and New York, USA. Close ); chicks  have olive-brown or sepia-coloured down above, yellow on underparts and face  , with pinkish-grey bill, olive-grey legs and feet, and pale grey eyes (1 Kear, J., Editor (2005). Ducks, Geese and Swans. Volume 1: General chapters, and Species accounts (Anhima to Salvadorina). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ); fledging 56–65 days. Sexual maturity achieved at c. 1 year (1 Kear, J., Editor (2005). Ducks, Geese and Swans. Volume 1: General chapters, and Species accounts (Anhima to Salvadorina). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Few other data.

Not globally threatened (Least Concern). In South America, nominate subspecies generally scattered and local, and apparently vanishing after dramatic decline for unclear reasons; overall population in E of continent estimated at 10,000–25,000 birds, with < 2500 in W South America in early 2000s (1 Kear, J., Editor (2005). Ducks, Geese and Swans. Volume 1: General chapters, and Species accounts (Anhima to Salvadorina). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Few observations in Colombia, W Ecuador (where considered Critically Endangered) (14 López-Lanús, B. and Gastezzi, P. (2000). An inventory of the birds of Segua Marsh, Manabí, Ecuador. Cotinga. 13: 59–64. Close ) and Peru (where perhaps recently extirpated) (15 Schulenberg, T. S., D. F. Stotz, D. F. Lane, J. P. O’Neill, and T. A. Parker (2007). Birds of Peru. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, USA. Close ), and records from N N Chile (3 Jaramillo, A. (2003). A Field Guide to the Birds of Chile Including the Antarctic Peninsula, the Falkland Islands and South Georgia. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ) and Trinidad (16 Kenefick, M., Restall, R. and Hayes, F.E. (2011). Birds of Trinidad & Tobago. Second edn. Christopher Helm, London. Close ) purely historical. Formerly numerous in parts of N & W Venezuela, where population was even recently estimated at 5000–10,000 individuals (1 Kear, J., Editor (2005). Ducks, Geese and Swans. Volume 1: General chapters, and Species accounts (Anhima to Salvadorina). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ), but now considered Endangered (17 Sharpe, C. J. (2008). Aves. In Libro Rojo de la Fauna Venezolana. Terca edición (J. P. Rodríguez and F. Rojas-Suárez, Editors). Provita and Shell Venezuela, S. A., Caracas, Venezuela. pp. 122–157. Close ) with few records since 1980s (13 Hilty, S. L. (2003). Birds of Venezuela. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Vast majority of recent South American observations in E Brazil, where species appears to be spreading S & W to Planalto (1 Kear, J., Editor (2005). Ducks, Geese and Swans. Volume 1: General chapters, and Species accounts (Anhima to Salvadorina). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ) and colonized state of São Paulo as recently as the early 1980s (4 Alvarenga, H.M.F. (1990). Novos registros e expansões geográficas de aves no leste do Estado de São Paulo. Ararajuba 1: 115-117. In Portuguese. Close , 18 Willis, E.O. (1991). Expansão geográfica de Netta erythrophthalma, Fluvicola nengeta e outras aves de zonas abertas com a “desertificação” antrópica em São Paulo. Ararajuba. 2: 101-102. Close , 19 Willis, E. O., and Y. Oniki (1993). New and reconfirmed birds from the state of São Paulo, Brazil, with notes on disappearing species. Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club 113(1):23–34. Close ): quite common in Jacarepagua, Marapendi, Itaipu and Piratininga Lagoons, Rio de Janeiro, where groups of up to 80 reported; in Piratininga, 120 counted in 1991; largest count, however, appears to be 1000 on L Sobradinho, Bahia, in 1992 (1 Kear, J., Editor (2005). Ducks, Geese and Swans. Volume 1: General chapters, and Species accounts (Anhima to Salvadorina). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Subspecies brunnea common to very common, especially in S Africa (where numbers have increased dramatically in Zimbabwe), albeit with fluctuating numbers; flocks of up to 800–5000 in W Cape, South Africa; 6550 on Kafue Flats, Zambia (5 Dowsett, R. J., D. R. Aspinwall, and F. Dowsett-Lemaire (2008). The Birds of Zambia. Tauraco Press & Aves, Liège, Belgium. Close ). Maximum counted in the Sahel and in E Africa is c. 2300 on L Nakuru in 1976; also 1300 on L Naivasha, Kenya, in which country breeding population has almost certainly declined in recent decades (7 Lewis, A. D., and D. E. Pomeroy (1989). A Bird Atlas of Kenya. A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam, the Netherlands. Close ); numbers in neighbouring Uganda, where 10,000 counted on L Kigezi and Ankole in late 1933, have also slumped (12 Carswell, M., D. Pomeroy, J. Reynolds, and H. Tushabe (2005). The Bird Atlas of Uganda. British Ornithologists’ Club and British Ornithologists' Union, Oxford, UK. Close ). African population, tentatively estimated at 30,000–70,000 individuals in 2002 (1 Kear, J., Editor (2005). Ducks, Geese and Swans. Volume 1: General chapters, and Species accounts (Anhima to Salvadorina). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ), is scattered; suffering due to transformation of habitat into agricultural land and probably also hunting pressure, at least locally (8 Dowsett-Lemaire, F., and R. J. Dowsett (2006). The Birds of Malawi: An Atlas and Handbook. Tauraco Press & Aves, Liège, Belgium. Close ).