White-throated Needletail Hirundapus caudacutus Scientific name definitions

The White-throated Needletail is a large swift with a short square tail and weak, short rectrix spines, a long body and long broad wings, the latter with blue gloss fading to green on remiges and coverts, an off-white mantle, contrastingly white throat, forehead and ‘horseshoe’ mark on the flanks and undertail-coverts on an otherwise brown body. It is a long-distance migrant, the nominate race nesting in the temperate and boreal forest zone between central Siberia and Japan, with a second population (race nudipes) in the Himalayas, and wintering mainly in southern New Guinea and eastern Australia, although those breeding in the Indian subcontinent perhaps spend the non-breeding season further north and west. Unsurprisingly, given such migrations and its powerful flight, vagrants have wandered as far afield as western Europe, the Aleutian Islands (Alaska), subantarctic Macquarie Island (Australia) and the Seychelles. Like most swifts, White-throated Needletail spends most of its life airborne, but the birds nest (and roost) in holes trees, including those previously excavated by woodpeckers (Picidae), and in Japan at least perhaps also breeds on cliffs.

Graceful and powerful flight, with slow purposeful turns, much gliding and soaring, and capable of sustained high-speed flight on surprisingly shallow wingbeats, but also broad circling flight at great heights (1 Chantler, P. J. (1993). Identification of Western Palearctic swifts. Dutch Birding 15(3):97–135. Close ). Large swift with short square tail and weak, short rectrix spines  protruding up to 6 mm beyond web; long full body and long broad wings  ; dark wings with blue gloss fading to green on remiges and coverts; off-white mantle , contrastingly white throat , white forehead  , and white horseshoe mark on flanks and undertail-coverts  on otherwise brown body.

Distinguished from other needletails by highly constrasting white throat patch. Silver-backed Needletail (Hirundapus cochinchinensis) has much less clear-cut and duller patch, and lacks pale forehead, while pale saddle on mantle is usually paler than in Brown-backed Needletail (H. giganteus) and Purple Needletail (H. celebensis), from which two species it also differs in having squarer-cut tail (2 Chantler, P., and G. Driessens (2000). Swifts: A Guide to the Swifts and Treeswifts of the World. 2nd edition. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ).

Juvenile

Rather variably plumaged, and some are very close in morphology to adult. Overall less glossy, especially on upperwing and tail, with darker and less contrasting throat, usually a less obvious mantle patch, less green gloss on upperparts and wings, black tips to undertail-coverts (the most consistent difference), black streaking and spotting on lower flanks, and usually has dusky or gray-brown forehead and lores. Prior to post-juvenile molt (on winter quarters), some paler gray feather bases (white on nape and rump) to the body can be visible, giving a mottled effect (2 Chantler, P., and G. Driessens (2000). Swifts: A Guide to the Swifts and Treeswifts of the World. 2nd edition. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ).

First-year

More similar to adult following post-juvenile molt, but typically retains gray-brown forehead, has black-fringed tip to shortest tertial, still has some black fringes to undertail-coverts, and very worn (retained) remiges and larger wing-coverts (2 Chantler, P., and G. Driessens (2000). Swifts: A Guide to the Swifts and Treeswifts of the World. 2nd edition. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ).

Adult

Has broad white and highly contrasting throat patch, from gape, along lower ear-coverts, and onto lower throat, and white band on lores (where broadest) and forehead (where sometimes browner). Rest of head and nape dark olive-brown, glossed greenish blue in fresh plumage, but with pale brown feather bases visible when worn, although white feather bases are rarely seen, even when heavily worn. Darkest parts of head are those tracts adjacent to the white throat patch. Saddle pale brown, palest on centre of lower mantle and back (especially when worn), but progressively darker towards nape. Scapulars olive-brown and central rump, clearly darker at sides and on uppertail-coverts. Tail black, glossed green, with rectrix spines projecting up to 6 mm on central feathers, or 2.5 mm on outermost feathers. Remiges black, paler brown on inner webs of primaries, but not to their tips; wing-coverts black. Primary-coverts and remiges glossed blue, and other coverts glossed on outer webs and tips to inner webs, while the rest of the inner webs are glossed green, but gloss usually hard to see in the field, and is lost with wear. Inner webs to tertials white. On underwing, remiges paler, and fairly uniform with greater primary-coverts and greater coverts. Median and lesser coverts, however, are darker, black-brown, uniform with the axillaries. Breast and upper flanks to vent dark olive-brown, with brown gloss when fresh. Lower flanks and undertail-coverts white, forming highly contrasting and distinctive horseshoe mark. Sexes alike.

Few published data.

Linear Measurements

Overall length 19–21 cm.

Linear measurements (in mm, with sample sizes and means in parentheses where available, from 2 Chantler, P., and G. Driessens (2000). Swifts: A Guide to the Swifts and Treeswifts of the World. 2nd edition. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ):

Mass

Male 47.4–169 g, female 64.5–125.0 g (3 Neufeldt, I. and Ivanov, A.I. (1960). Some notes on the biology of the Needletailed Swift in Siberia. British Birds 53(10):433–435. Close , 4 Collins, C.T. and Brooke, R.K. (1976). A review of the swifts of the genus Hirundapus (Aves: Apodidae). Contrib. Sci. Los Angeles Co. Mus. 282:1–22. Close , 5 Higgins, P. J., Editor (1999). Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Vol. 4. Parrots to Dollarbird. Oxford University Press, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. Close ).

Editor's Note: This article requires further editing work to merge existing content into the appropriate Subspecies sections. Please bear with us while this update takes place.

Closely related to Hirundapus cochinchinensis, with which was in the past sometimes considered conspecific (6 Peters, J. L. (1940). Check-list of Birds of the World. Volume 4. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, USA. Close ). Taxon formosanus formerly placed in present species (6 Peters, J. L. (1940). Check-list of Birds of the World. Volume 4. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, USA. Close ), but has been shown to be virtually identical to nominate race of H. cochinchinensis, to which it clearly belongs (see that species).

Variation is expressed in color of the lores, and upperparts, and perhaps also in behavior, with some populations potentially more, or wholly, sedentary, versus long-distance migrants.

Two subspecies recognized.

H. c. caudacutus (Latham, 1801)—breeds from central Siberia east to Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands, and south to northern and eastern Mongolia, northeast China, Korea, and Japan; winters in southern New Guinea and eastern Australia. Proposed race bourreti (from Laos, where a presumed passage migrant) is indistinguishable from nominate (7 Dickinson, E. C. (1970). Notes upon a collection of birds from Indochina. Ibis 112(4):481–487. Close ).

H. c. nudipes (Hodgson, 1837)—breeds in the Himalayan foothills, irregularly from northern Pakistan east to Assam, Arunachal Pradesh through northern Myanmar to southern China (Sichuan south to Yunnan); wintering area not well documented, possibly includes Malay Peninsula and Java. Differs from nominate caudacutus apparently in migratory habits, and has black forehead and lores, less distinct (browner and less silvery-gray) (2 Chantler, P., and G. Driessens (2000). Swifts: A Guide to the Swifts and Treeswifts of the World. 2nd edition. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ) mantle patch, generally darker underparts (with green gloss) and underwing-coverts (2 Chantler, P., and G. Driessens (2000). Swifts: A Guide to the Swifts and Treeswifts of the World. 2nd edition. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ), while upperparts are glossed darker blue (2 Chantler, P., and G. Driessens (2000). Swifts: A Guide to the Swifts and Treeswifts of the World. 2nd edition. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ), suggesting considerable distinctiveness. Also averages marginally shorter-winged (194–214 mm, versus 198–213 mm in nominate (8 Cramp, S., Editor (1985). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume 4. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ), and rectrix spines protrude up to 5 mm, versus 6 mm in nominate (2 Chantler, P., and G. Driessens (2000). Swifts: A Guide to the Swifts and Treeswifts of the World. 2nd edition. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ). Specimens in NHMUK from China, however, appear intermediate, having white lores and blue-glossed upperparts (9 del Hoyo, J., and N. J. Collar (2014). HBW and BirdLife International Illustrated Checklist of the Birds of the World. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Close ).

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EBIRD GROUP (MONOTYPIC)

White-throated Needletail (White-lored) Hirundapus caudacutus caudacutus Scientific name definitions

• eBird map
• 11 photos
• 0 recordings

Systematics History

Hirundo caudacuta Latham, 1801, Index Ornithologicus, Supplement II, p. lvii.—New Holland [= New South Wales, apud Mathews 1918].

Type not known to be in existence.

Synonyms:
Hirundapus caudacutus caudacutus var. uchidai Ishizawa, 1928, Annotationes Ornithologiae Orientalis 1:146, pl. 4, fig. 1.—Nikko, Province of Simotsuke, Hondo [= Namma-mura district, Kamitsuga-gun, Tochigi Prefecture, Honshu], Japan (10 Kawaji, N., H. Tojo, and E. Kitahara (2002). Catalogue of T. Mishima's collection - bird skins. Bulletin of Forestry and Forest Research Institute 1(4):245–323. Close , 11 Morioka, H., E. C. Dickinson, T. Hiraoka, D. Allen, and T. Yamasaki (2005). Types of Japanese Birds. National Science Museum, Tokyo, Japan. Close ). Based on an adult (female?) collected on 24 October 1925 by T. Ishizawa (12 Kuroda, N. (1932). A revision of the types of birds described by Japanese authors during the years 1923 to 1931. Novitates Zoologicae 37:384–405. Close ), held at the Forest and Forest Products Research Institute, Tsukuba, Japan (FFPRI 1498) (10 Kawaji, N., H. Tojo, and E. Kitahara (2002). Catalogue of T. Mishima's collection - bird skins. Bulletin of Forestry and Forest Research Institute 1(4):245–323. Close , 11 Morioka, H., E. C. Dickinson, T. Hiraoka, D. Allen, and T. Yamasaki (2005). Types of Japanese Birds. National Science Museum, Tokyo, Japan. Close ). Described as a color variant at infrasubspecific level, which as a result means that the name has no standing (having not been adopted as valid by any subsequent author) and cannot have a type (11 Morioka, H., E. C. Dickinson, T. Hiraoka, D. Allen, and T. Yamasaki (2005). Types of Japanese Birds. National Science Museum, Tokyo, Japan. Close ).
Chaetura caudacuta bourreti David-Beaulieu, 1944, Les Oiseaux du Tranninh, p. 89.—Xieng Khouang [19°20’N, 103°30’E], northern Laos. The holotype is a female collected by M. David-Beaulieu on 24 April 1940, and now held at the Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok (7 Dickinson, E. C. (1970). Notes upon a collection of birds from Indochina. Ibis 112(4):481–487. Close ); the latter author discussed reasons for considering this name a synonym of the nominate.

Distribution

Breeds from central Siberia east to Sakhalin and Kuril Islands, and to northern and eastern Mongolia, northeast China, Korea, and Japan; winters in southern New Guinea and eastern Australia.

Identification Summary

Described under Plumages.

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EBIRD GROUP (MONOTYPIC)

White-throated Needletail (Himalayan) Hirundapus caudacutus nudipes Scientific name definitions

• eBird map
• 13 photos
• 0 recordings

Systematics History

Cypselus (Chaetura) nudipes Hodgson, 1837, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal 5:779.—Nepal.

Four syntypes, all presented by Brian Houghton Hodgson, are held at the Natural History Museum, Tring, of which one, a relaxed mount, is NHMUK 1843.1.13.173 (13 Salvin, O., and E. Hartert (1892). Catalogue of the Birds in the British Museum. Volume 16. Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History), London, UK. Close , 14 Warren, R. L. M. (1966). Type-specimens of Birds in the British Museum (Natural History). Volume 1. Non-Passerines. British Museum (Natural History), London, UK. Close ).

Distribution

Himalayan foothills, irregularly from northern Pakistan east to Assam, Arunachal Pradesh through northern Myanmar to southern China (Sichuan south to Yunnan); wintering area not well documented, possibly includes the Thai-Malay Peninsula and Java, but there are recent sightings of quite large numbers of individuals positively identified as this subspecies in the Mekongga Mountains, southeast Sulawesi (15 Berryman, A. J., and J. A. Eaton (2020). The avifauna of the Mekongga Mountains, Southeast Sulawesi, Indonesia, and notes on a vocally distinct Locustella grasshopper warbler. BirdingASIA 33:27–35. Close ).

Identification Summary

Differs from nominate caudacutus apparently in migratory habits, and has black forehead and lores, less distinct (browner and less silvery-gray) mantle patch (2 Chantler, P., and G. Driessens (2000). Swifts: A Guide to the Swifts and Treeswifts of the World. 2nd edition. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ), generally darker underparts (with green gloss) and underwing-coverts (2 Chantler, P., and G. Driessens (2000). Swifts: A Guide to the Swifts and Treeswifts of the World. 2nd edition. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ), whilst the upperparts are glossed darker blue (2 Chantler, P., and G. Driessens (2000). Swifts: A Guide to the Swifts and Treeswifts of the World. 2nd edition. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ), suggesting considerable distinctiveness. Also averages marginally shorter winged (194–214 mm, versus 198–213 mm in the nominate (8 Cramp, S., Editor (1985). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Volume 4. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ), and rectrix spines protrude up to 5 mm, versus 6 mm in nominate (2 Chantler, P., and G. Driessens (2000). Swifts: A Guide to the Swifts and Treeswifts of the World. 2nd edition. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ). Specimens in NHMUK from China, however, appear intermediate, having white lores and blue-glossed upperparts (9 del Hoyo, J., and N. J. Collar (2014). HBW and BirdLife International Illustrated Checklist of the Birds of the World. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Close ).

In north, breeds from the Vasyuagan River, in central Siberia, across the Russian Far East, including Sakhalin Island, to northern Japan (Hokkaido south to central Honshu) and south to Mongolia, northeast China and the Korean Peninsula; this population winters in southern New Guinea and Australia, principally across the eastern half. A southern population (recognized at subspecies level) is either resident or partially so in the Himalayas, from northern Pakistan east through Nepal, Sikkim and Bhutan to Arunachal Pradesh (India), western Yunnan and southern Sichuan (China); at least some migrate southeast in winter, to Thailand and Indochina, but also as far afield as West Java, but at present (due to the lack of specimens and difficulty in making subspecific identifications in the field) it is unclear whether the majority of records in South-East Asia pertain to Himalayan or Siberian migrants, and consequently whether the latter population may winter over a much larger area than currently believed.

In north of range, wooded lowlands and sparsely vegetated hills. In Himalayas at 1,250–4,000 m, feeding over river valleys and upland meadows and pastures, as well as subtropical, broadleaved and temperate forest between 6,00 and 3,200 m in Bhutan, with occasional records to 400 m and 3,500 m (16 Spierenburg, P. (2005). Birds in Bhutan: Status and Distribution. Oriental Bird Club, Bedford, UK. Close ). Winters in both coastal and mountainous areas, apparently using tree hollows for roosting (17 Tarburton, M.K. (1993). Radiotracking a White-throated Needletail to roost. Emu 93(2):121–124. Close ). In Snowy Mts, Australia, abundant winterer above 1,800 m, and common at 1,530–1,800 m. In Wallacea recorded from sea level to 800 m on Sangihe, 900 m on Peleng (Banggai Islands) (18 Rheindt, F. E. (2010). New biogeographic records for the avifauna of Taliabu (Sula Islands, Indonesia), with preliminary documentation of two previously undiscovered taxa. Bulletin of the British Ornithologists’ Club 130(1):33–51. Close ), 500 m on Buru and 3,000 m on Lombok, these mountains being free of snow. Recorded in small numbers over woodland in Brisbane Forest Park, Australia. In lowland rainforest zone of Papua New Guinea recorded over forest edge and non-forest.

Nominate race is a long-distance migrant. Himalayan race nudipes may be resident or perhaps just summer visitor, e.g. in Bhutan, where extreme dates are February–October (mainly late March–September) (19 Ali, S., B. Biswas, and S. D. Ripley (1996). The Birds of Bhutan. Zoological Survey of India Occasional Paper 136. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. Close ,20 Tymstra, R., Connop, S. and Tshering, C. (1997). Some bird observations from central Bhutan, May 1994. Forktail 12:49–60. Close ,16 Spierenburg, P. (2005). Birds in Bhutan: Status and Distribution. Oriental Bird Club, Bedford, UK. Close ) and also said to vacate breeding areas in Nepal (21 Inskipp, C., and T. Inskipp (1991). A Guide to the Birds of Nepal. Second edition. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ); reported to appear and disappear at localities rather suddenly, making clear assessment of migratory status complicated; local and uncommon passage migrant between September and December in Thailand, where perhaps also winters (22 Treesucon, U., and W. Limparungpatthanakij (2018). Birds of Thailand. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Close ), records in South Annam, Vietnam, in March–April (23 Craik, R., and L. Q. Minh (2018). Birds of Vietnam. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Close ), and two specimens from Bokor, Cambodia, December 1927 (24 Goes, F. (2013). The Birds of Cambodia: An Annotated Checklist. Centre for Biodiversity Conservation, Fauna & Flora International Cambodia Programme and Royal University of Phnom Penh, Cambodia. Close ). Two specimens of nudipes also available from West Java, November 1922 (5 Higgins, P. J., Editor (1999). Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Vol. 4. Parrots to Dollarbird. Oxford University Press, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. Close ,25 Eaton, J. A., B. van Balen, N. W. Brickle, and F. E. Rheindt (2016). Birds of the Indonesian Archipelago: Greater Sundas and Wallacea. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Close ) and at least some Peninsular Malaysian (26 Wells, D. R. (1999). The Birds of the Thai-Malay Peninsula. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ) and Bornean records may also pertain to this taxon (27 Mann, C. F. (2008). The Birds of Borneo. An Annotated Checklist. B.O.U. Checklist 23. British Ornithologists’ Union and British Ornithologists’ Club, Peterborough, UK. Close ). Nominate race is present on Siberian breeding grounds mid May to late September, around Lake Baikal from second half of May to late August, but in Russian Far East sometimes even present until late October (3 Neufeldt, I. and Ivanov, A.I. (1960). Some notes on the biology of the Needletailed Swift in Siberia. British Birds 53(10):433–435. Close ); summer visitor, Japan, mainly April–September, with records until November (28 Brazil, M. (1991). The Birds of Japan. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ,29 Chikara, O. (2019). Birds of Japan. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Close ); migrates through China, Indochina, and to lesser extent southern and eastern Thailand (September–November and February–April) (22 Treesucon, U., and W. Limparungpatthanakij (2018). Birds of Thailand. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Close ), Wallacea and New Guinea, but is little more than a vagrant (November, March–May) in Peninsular Malaysia (26 Wells, D. R. (1999). The Birds of the Thai-Malay Peninsula. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ); recorded on passage and possibly as winter visitor through Wallacea (30 Coates, B. J., and K. D. Bishop (1997). A Guide to the Birds of Wallacea: Sulawesi, The Moluccas and Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia. Dove Publications, Alderley, Queensland, Australia. Close ): mid October, Sangihe (31 Riley, J. (1997). The birds of Sangihe and Talaud, North Sulawesi. Kukila 9:3–36. Close ); October to early April, Sulawesi (32 White, C.M.N. and Bruce, M.D. (1986). The Birds of Wallacea (Sulawesi, the Moluccas & Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia). An Annotated Check-list. B.O.U. Check-list 7. British Ornithologists’ Union, London. Close ); October, Taliabu (Sula Islands) (33 Stones, A.J., Lucking, R.S., Davidson, P.J. and Wahyu Raharjaningtrah (1997). Checklist of the birds of the Sula Islands (1991), with particular reference to Taliabu island. Kukila 9:37–55. Close ,18 Rheindt, F. E. (2010). New biogeographic records for the avifauna of Taliabu (Sula Islands, Indonesia), with preliminary documentation of two previously undiscovered taxa. Bulletin of the British Ornithologists’ Club 130(1):33–51. Close ); March–April, Peleng (Banggai Islands) (34 Rheindt, F. E., F. Verbelen, D. D. Putra, A. Rahman, and M. Indrawan (2010). New biogeographic records in the avifauna of Peleng Island (Sulawesi, Indonesia), with taxonomic notes on some endemic taxa. Bulletin of the British Ornithologists’ Club 130(3):181–207. Close ); November and February, Buru (35 Jepson, P. (1993). Recent ornithological observations from Buru. Kukila 6(2):85–109. Close ); late April, Halmahera (36 Robson, C. (1997). From the field. Bulletin of the Oriental Bird Club 25:61–69. Close ); January and early April, Lombok (32 White, C.M.N. and Bruce, M.D. (1986). The Birds of Wallacea (Sulawesi, the Moluccas & Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia). An Annotated Check-list. B.O.U. Check-list 7. British Ornithologists’ Union, London. Close ); late September, October and January, Flores; December, Lembata (37 Trainor, C.R. (2003). The birds of Lembata (Lomblen), Lesser Sundas. Kukila 12:39–53. Close ); October, Timor (32 White, C.M.N. and Bruce, M.D. (1986). The Birds of Wallacea (Sulawesi, the Moluccas & Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia). An Annotated Check-list. B.O.U. Check-list 7. British Ornithologists’ Union, London. Close ); December, Timor-Leste (38 Trainor, C.R., and Leitão, P.J. (2007). Further significant bird records from Atauro Island, Timor-Leste (East Timor). Forktail 23:155–158. Close ); recorded from Aru Islands in early April (39 Diamond, J.M. and Bishop, K.D. (1994). New records and observations from the Aru Islands, New Guinea region. Emu 94(1):41–45. Close ); however, just three records in Philippines (in April, September and October) (40 Jensen, A. E., T. H. Fisher, and R. O. Hutchinson (2015). Notable new bird records from the Philippines. Forktail 31:24–36. Close ). Migrates through South-East Asia September–November (occasionally from late Aug) (41 Wilkinson, R., G. Dutson, B. Sheldon, Darjono, and Y. S. Noor (1991). The avifauna of Barito Ulu region, Central Kalimantan. Kukila 5(2):99–116. Close ) and winters in Australia (including Tasmania) December–March (42 Higgins, P., Editor (1999). Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Volume 4. Parrots to Dollarbird. Oxford University Press, Melbourne, Australia. Close ), with smaller numbers in southern New Guinea, mainly in southern lowlands and Southeast Peninsula (43 Beehler, B.M., Sengo, J.B., Filardi, C.E. and Merg, K. (1995). Documenting the lowland rainforest avifauna in Papua New Guinea—effects of patchy distributions, survey effort and methodology. Emu 95(3):149–161. Close ,2 Chantler, P., and G. Driessens (2000). Swifts: A Guide to the Swifts and Treeswifts of the World. 2nd edition. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ,44 Beehler, B. M., and T. K. Pratt (2016). Birds of New Guinea: Distribution, Taxonomy, and Systematics. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, USA. Close ) (also January–February records from Lihir in New Ireland) (45 Mackay, R.D. (1993). New distribution records - Lihir Island. Muruk 6(1):10. Close ); many records of overshooting birds in New Zealand, mainly November–April, with some reaching as far as the Snares Islands and Chatham Islands (46 Hudson, F. (1968). Spine-tailed Swifts over Kaipara flats. Notornis 15(1):42. Close ,47 Miller, P. (1980). Spine-tailed Swifts in south Otago. Notornis 27(1):44. Close ,48 Taylor, G.A. (1999). Seabirds found dead on New Zealand beaches in 1996. Notornis 46(4):434–445. Close ,49 Gill, B.J., Bell, B.D., Chambers, G.K., Medway, D.G., Palma, R.L., Scofield, R.P., Tennyson, A.J.D. and Worthy, T.H. (2010). Checklist of the Birds of New Zealand, Norfolk and Macquarie Islands, and the Ross Dependency, Antarctica. 4th edition. Te Papa Press & Ornithological Society of New Zealand, Wellington, New Zealand. Close ). Among observations in all months between May and August in Australia, as far south as Victoria and New South Wales (5 Higgins, P. J., Editor (1999). Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Vol. 4. Parrots to Dollarbird. Oxford University Press, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. Close ), the species has been recorded from the Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, with Pacific Swift Apus pacificus in July (50 Blackburn, A. (1970). Unusual records of Spine-tailed and Fork-tailed Swifts. Emu. 70(2):90. Close ), and the Snowy Mts, New South Wales, in austral summer (51 Osborne, W.S. and Green, K. (1992). Seasonal changes in composition, abundance and foraging behaviour of birds in the Snowy Mountains. Emu 92(2):93–105. Close ), presumably non-breeding birds. In spring, recently recorded for first time on Hainan, April (52 Robson, C.R. (1995). From the field. China. Bulletin of the Oriental Bird Club 22:59. Close ); migrates through Hong Kong mid March to early May (2 Chantler, P., and G. Driessens (2000). Swifts: A Guide to the Swifts and Treeswifts of the World. 2nd edition. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ), South-East Asia as late as May, and northeast China in May. Vagrant to Aleutian Islands (four records, all in May, 1974, 1978, 1984 and 1985, with the only specimen unsurprisingly being of the nominate race) (53 Balsh, L.G. (1980). A brief guide to the identification and status of Asian species in Alaska. Birding 12:12–22. Close ,54 Howell, S. N. G., I. Lewington, and W. Russell (2014). Rare Birds of North America. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, USA. Close ), Seychelles (twice) and Rodrigues (55 Dymond, J.N. (1994). White-throated Needletail Hirundapus caudacutus, first occurrence in the Malagasy region. Bulletin of the African Bird Club 1(2):78. Close ,56 Safford, R., and F. Hawkins, Editors (2013). The Birds of Africa. Volume 8. The Malagasy Region. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ), Christmas Island (57 Barrand, P.D. (2005). White-throated Needletail Hirundapus caudacutus: a new bird for Christmas Island. Australian Field Ornithology 22(2):104–105. Close ), Cocos-Keeling Islands (58 Stokes, T., Shiels, W. and Dunn, K. (1984). Birds of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Indian Ocean. Emu 84(1):23–28. Close ), Fiji (2 Chantler, P., and G. Driessens (2000). Swifts: A Guide to the Swifts and Treeswifts of the World. 2nd edition. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ), New Caledonia (59 Dutson, G. (2011). Birds of Melanesia: The Bismarcks, Solomons, Vanuatu and New Caledonia. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ) and even subantarctic Macquarie Island (Australia) (5 Higgins, P. J., Editor (1999). Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Vol. 4. Parrots to Dollarbird. Oxford University Press, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. Close ) and the Campbell Islands (New Zealand (60 Bailey, A.M. and Sorensen, J.H. (1962). Subantarctic Campbell Island. Denver Museum of Natural History Proceedings 10. 305 pp. Close ), as well as western and northern Europe (Denmark (61 Anon. (2012). Western Palearctic news. Birding World 25(10):420–427. Close ), Finland, Netherlands (62 Sanders, E., Lilipaly, S.J. and Ebels, E. (1998). Stekelstaartgierzwaluw op Walcheren in mei 1996. Dutch Birding 20(4):168–172. Close ), Norway, Sweden), with British and Irish records April–July and November; also single November records from Malta and Spain (63 de Juana A., E. and el Comité de Rarezas de la Sociedad Española de Ornitología (1992). Observaciones homologadas de aves raras en España y Portugal. Informe de 1990. Ardeola 39(1):73–83. Close ).

Coleoptera, Hemiptera and Hymenoptera recorded for race nudipes (64 Ali, S., and S. D. Ripley (1983). Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Volume 4. 2nd edition. Oxford University Press, Delhi, India. Close ). In Siberia, nominate race, perhaps mainly Coleoptera, among a range of insects reported as debris in nests (3 Neufeldt, I. and Ivanov, A.I. (1960). Some notes on the biology of the Needletailed Swift in Siberia. British Birds 53(10):433–435. Close ). Wintering birds  in New South Wales, Australia  , recorded feeding on Pheidole flying ants (65 Lepschi, B.J. (1993). Food of some birds in eastern New South Wales: additions to Barker & Vestjens. Emu 93(3):195–199. Close ); elsewhere in Australia, diet includes Coleoptera, Hemiptera, Diptera, Hymenoptera, Isoptera, Lepidoptera and Orthoptera (5 Higgins, P. J., Editor (1999). Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Vol. 4. Parrots to Dollarbird. Oxford University Press, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. Close ). Gregarious, forming both large single-species flocks  (sometimes numbering thousands on winter quarters (5 Higgins, P. J., Editor (1999). Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Vol. 4. Parrots to Dollarbird. Oxford University Press, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. Close ) and regularly consorting with other Hirundapus or Pacific Swift Apus pacificus on migration (2 Chantler, P., and G. Driessens (2000). Swifts: A Guide to the Swifts and Treeswifts of the World. 2nd edition. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ), but rarely associates with other species while foraging during breeding season; occasionally observed feeding with Fairy Martin Petrochelidon ariel during non-breeding season in Australia (5 Higgins, P. J., Editor (1999). Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Vol. 4. Parrots to Dollarbird. Oxford University Press, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. Close ). Forages at all heights, from just 1 m above ground to at least 1,800 m above it, occasionally observed skimming ground taking insects on mud; in Australia, observed occasionally taking insects on tree trunks or even briefly clinging to flowers searching for prey (5 Higgins, P. J., Editor (1999). Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Vol. 4. Parrots to Dollarbird. Oxford University Press, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. Close ).

Typically, a rapid, insect-like chattering or twittering (softer than Apus screams), e.g., trp-trp-trp-trp-trp-trp..., of varying duration and speed, but can be loud and audible over reasonable distances; but also reported to give a loud, sharp cry; a chirp; a piping sound, likened to a sandpiper (Scolopacidae); a churring twitter; and, when handled, a querulous note, and a repeated cheep from an injured individual (5 Higgins, P. J., Editor (1999). Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Vol. 4. Parrots to Dollarbird. Oxford University Press, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. Close ,2 Chantler, P., and G. Driessens (2000). Swifts: A Guide to the Swifts and Treeswifts of the World. 2nd edition. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ). On wintering grounds, said to be less vocal than Pacific Swift Apus pacificus (5 Higgins, P. J., Editor (1999). Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Vol. 4. Parrots to Dollarbird. Oxford University Press, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. Close ).

Gravid female nudipes collected in mid April in northern Cachar, north India (64 Ali, S., and S. D. Ripley (1983). Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Volume 4. 2nd edition. Oxford University Press, Delhi, India. Close ); nominate race lays late May to early June in Siberia and Japan (66 Dementiev, G. P., N. A. Gladkov, E. S. Ptushenko, E. P. Spangenberg, and A. M. Sudilovskaya (1966). Birds of the Soviet Union. Volume 1. Israel Program for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem, Israel. Close ,28 Brazil, M. (1991). The Birds of Japan. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ), but young in nest recorded as late as August in Russia (67 Lobko-Lobanovski, M.I. (1956). [The biology of Hirundapus caudacutus in Sakhalin]. Zoologischeskii Zhurnal 35:1586–1587. In Russian. Close ). Breeds Ussuriland late May to early June; eggs laid from mid June and fledglings leave nest late July to early August (67 Lobko-Lobanovski, M.I. (1956). [The biology of Hirundapus caudacutus in Sakhalin]. Zoologischeskii Zhurnal 35:1586–1587. In Russian. Close ). Nest consists of scrape, 35–50 cm in diameter, in debris at bottom of tree hollow, e.g. larches (Larix) and oaks (Quercus) (3 Neufeldt, I. and Ivanov, A.I. (1960). Some notes on the biology of the Needletailed Swift in Siberia. British Birds 53(10):433–435. Close ), but also reported nesting in cliffs in Japan (17 Tarburton, M.K. (1993). Radiotracking a White-throated Needletail to roost. Emu 93(2):121–124. Close ); two pairs apparently recorded prospecting old woodpecker hole in an Acer tree in Pakistan (68 Roberts, T. J. (1991). The Birds of Pakistan. Volume 1. Non-Passeriformes. Oxford University Press, Karachi, Pakistan. Close ). Clutch 2–7 white eggs, mean size 32·2 mm × 22·3 mm, mass 7.9–8.9 g (67 Lobko-Lobanovski, M.I. (1956). [The biology of Hirundapus caudacutus in Sakhalin]. Zoologischeskii Zhurnal 35:1586–1587. In Russian. Close ); incubation commences with first egg, both sexes incubating, period 40 days; chicks blind and naked on hatching; fledging period 40–42 days.

Not globally threatened (Least Concern). Race nudipes local and uncommon throughout most of range, though fairly common in Bhutan. Nominate race becomes commoner farther east within Siberian range. Local declines reported in Japan in response to tree removal (69 Namba, T., Y. Yabuhara, K. Yukinari, and R. Kurosawa (2010). Changes in the avifauna of the Hokkaido University campus, Sapporo, detected by a long-term census. Ornithological Science 9(1):37–48. Close ). A significant decline during 1951–2010 has been detected in the population wintering at Victoria, Australia, which has been attributed to the accelerated destruction of the Siberian forests, where the birds need old trees with hollows in which to breed (70 Tarburton, M.K. (2014). Status of the White-throated Needletail Hirundapus caudacutus in Australia: Evidence for a marked decline. Australian Field Ornithology 31(3):122–140. Close ). Abundant in some areas of Australian winter quarters where flocks involving tens of thousands, once 50,000–100,000, have been reported (5 Higgins, P. J., Editor (1999). Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Vol. 4. Parrots to Dollarbird. Oxford University Press, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. Close ), with smaller numbers in southern New Guinea (2 Chantler, P., and G. Driessens (2000). Swifts: A Guide to the Swifts and Treeswifts of the World. 2nd edition. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ). Possible that species occasionally winters as far north and west as Thailand (2 Chantler, P., and G. Driessens (2000). Swifts: A Guide to the Swifts and Treeswifts of the World. 2nd edition. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ). On the other hand, recent (April 1995) first record from Myanmar (71 Robson, C. R., H. Buck, D. S. Farrow, T. Fisher, and B. F. King (1998). A birdwatching visit to the Chin Hills, west Burma (Myanmar), with notes from nearby areas. Forktail 13:109–120. Close ) has been speculated to perhaps indicate that Himalayan breeding population reaches farther southeast than thought (2 Chantler, P., and G. Driessens (2000). Swifts: A Guide to the Swifts and Treeswifts of the World. 2nd edition. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ), but see also Movement Ecology.