Yellow-tufted Honeyeater Lichenostomus melanops Scientific name definitions

16·5–21 cm; male 16·6–30g and female 14·2–31 g (meltoni), male 23–32 g and female 22–24·5 g (nominate), male 24·4–40 g and female 25–41·4 g (gippslandicus), male 27·6–40·2 g and female 26–36·7 g (cassidix). Nominate race has yellow-olive forehead to nape, broad black mask (lores, eye-patch and ear-coverts) bordered at rear by bold yellow ear-tuft; and yellow chin and throat finely streaked blackish in mid-line; upperparts mostly dark olive-brown, with olive fringes on uppertail-coverts; upperwing dark brown, ­olive margins of wing-coverts (giving slightly scalloped appearance), yellow-olive outer edges of remiges (forming strong panel on folded wing); uppertail olive, yellow-olive sides and broad white tip on outer feathers (lost with wear); underparts olive-grey, washed yellow, diffusely streaked yellow across breast; underwing buffish-yellow with olive-grey trailing edge and tip; undertail ­olive-grey with yellow-olive sides and white tip; iris rufous-brown to rich red-brown; bill and gape black (in non-breeding periods some develop traces of yellow on gape and faint grey or yellow base of lower mandible); legs grey. Sexes alike in plumage, male slightly larger than female. Juvenile is duller and paler than adult, with brownish-black mask, paler yellow ear-tuft and malar area, brownish downy feathers on back and rump, black-brown to black bill with yellow or orange base of lower mandible, yellow and swollen gape, and dark brown iris. Races differ in size and plumage: meltoni is like nominate, differing only in smaller size, slightly less dark hindneck to back, and slightly narrower pale tip on outer rectrices; <em>cassidix</em> is highly distinctive, both sexes significantly larger than others (estimated 7–17% larger than previous race in linear dimensions and 40–43% heavier), forehead feathers elongated and forming richer yellower crest, otherwise differs from nominate and previous in much broader and (on some) longer black mask, longer ear-tuft, yellow-olive nape and hindneck (grading into or sharply demarcated from black-brown mantle), much darker upperside, black wash on throat in some birds, richer yellow belly and streaking on breast, and (in fresh plumage) broader white tips of outer rectrices; gippslandicus is intermediate between nominate and last in plumage, closer to last in size.

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Dry open sclerophyll forests and woodlands, typically dominated by eucalypts and with well-developed, often dense, understorey; frequently in riparian associations, along watercourses or in or bordering swampland, or vegetation near water. Nominate race, meltoni and gippslandicus mainly in mixed eucalypt associations, especially box-ironbark forests or woodlands, e.g. of mugga (Eucalyptus sideroxylon) and grey box (Eucalyptus microcarpa), but in range of combinations of box, stringybark, gum and peppermint eucalypts and Angophora, and often confined to riparian associations; recorded also in mixed eucalypt-cypress-pine (Eucalyptus-Callitris) woodland, and sometimes woodlands dominated by cypress-pines or in mallee associations. Nominate race also inhabits communities dominated by Banksia, and heathland, very occasionally forages in coastal Leptospermum shrubland or among mangroves, and sometimes visit gardens. In some areas moves from open forest with dense understorey to wooded gulleys in autumn-winter, or shifts into different habitats (e.g. nominate race often uses heathland with flowering Banksia in autumn-winter). Endangered race cassidix largely confined to narrow remnant strips of tall riparian forest and woodland dominated by mountain swamp gum (Eucalyptus camphora) on flats along streams or surrounding swampland, with tall dense understorey of scented paperbark (Melaleuca squarrosa) and woolly tea-tree (Leptospermum lanigerum), or reeds or sedges; in winter, some movement to nearby terraces or slopes with more open forest dominated by swamp gum or mixed green scent-bark-messmate-narrow-leaved peppermint (Eucalyptus fulgens-E. obliqua-E. radiata), with diverse dense heath understorey; formerly also in tall open riparian manna gum forest on less swampy sections of creeks, and recently reintroduced into this habitat.

Largely sedentary, with some local movements; altitudinal migration in S. Race cassidix sedentary, with some local movement, mainly in winter and mainly by immatures and non-territorial adults, but also involving a few breeding females (which may disperse up to several kilometres, but usually return to same mate and territory in following breeding season). Other races also sedentary, again with some local movements, e.g. in Sydney moves in autumn from forest breeding habitat to heathland; abundance fluctuates at some sites, and apparently some movements occur, seasonal in some areas and irregular in others (latter often described as nomadism), though extent of such movements not known and possibly local or post-breeding dispersal. Some movements (especially by race meltoni) related to climate, particularly drought; meltoni occasional vagrant S of Great Divide, including at Yellingbo (range of cassidix), at least 50 km S of nearest known breeding site. Altitudinal migrant in Southern Highlands (New South Wales), moving to lower levels in May–Aug.

Primarily arthropods (mainly insects, some spiders, occasionally gastropod snails) and insect products, such as lerp and honeydew, as well as nectar and manna; occasionally fruit. Race cassidix commonly feeds on exudate flows from injuries on trunks of eucalypts. Forages mainly in canopy of tall trees (typically eucalypts ), less often in subcanopy, in saplings and shrubs, occasionally on ground; meltoni fed mainly in trees (c. 77–92%), with rest in shrubs or on ground, but in other studies foraging done almost equally at all levels. Frequently forages among foliage, twigs, and on exfoliating or decorticating bark on small and large branches and trunks of trees, or feeds aerially; occasionally at flowers. In studies of race cassidix at Yellingbo, foraging comprised only 16% of general behaviour, and in one case foraged almost wholly in trees (c. 95–97% of observations of non-nectar-feeding), with remainder in shrubs; foraging height varied seasonally, much time spent in lower strata during Mar–May, and most in upper strata in Jun–Oct; this race specializes on foliage and bark of eucalypts, taking mainly arthropods and sugary exudates, and tends to feed on nectar and aerially more often in non-breeding season. All races obtain most food by gleaning from foliage and bark , by probing bark, and by sallying for insects (sally-striking both in air and on foliage) or sally-hovering to take manna from tree trunks; only occasionally probe flowers, both for nectar and to obtain insects, or glean from ground litter. Sometimes licks sap from wounds made by Leadbeater’s possums (Gymnobelideus leadbeateri) on branches or trunks of paperbarks and tea-trees. Active, conspicuous. Gregarious, usually in pairs or in small to large groups; in non-breeding season also in larger mobile flocks, exceptionally of up to 100 or more individuals at food. Aggressive towards most avian species, especially other honeyeaters.

Complex and varied, and some listed calls possibly variant descriptions of others. Some calls harsh and scratchy, others clear and almost whistling. Contact call “tsup”, “shup”, “jik”, “chow” or “scow”, sometimes used also in alarm. Other alarm calls include single or repeated “see”, varying in pitch and intensity, may be given by several birds in response to bird of prey; sometimes also as contact during strong winds (when single-note contact would not be heard); variant, described as sharp “peep”, as alert call (e.g. by male to female on nest). Various soft notes in social contexts, and often during corroborees (see Family Text ); and very soft conversational warble, “jor, jor, jor, jor, jor, jiree, jiree, jiree, jiree” or as “twee, twee, twee, twee, coffee-coffee-coffee-coffee”, repeated 2–3 times, typically between pair-members at nest, when human observer near young and (a louder version) during corroborees; soft indistinct “weet-weet-weet…”, usually of 4–5 notes, appears to be a territorial call. Other calls include repeated “char, char, char…”, often for long periods or interspersed with “see” calls, possibly same as harsh “churl, churl, churl…”; scolding note by adults attacking own young or when potential threat nearby; harsh scolding “chuzz-uzz” or “chuzz-uzz-uzz-uzz” when alarmed; incessant loud chattering during mutual chasing; low melodious trilling in flight; and harsh low continuous “tooey-t-tooey-t-tooey-t…” trill during corroborees. Snaps bill in aggression.

Breeding recorded in all months, though rarely May–Jun, most clutches in Sept–Nov; at Yellingbo (race cassidix), early nests finished late Jul and eggs early Aug to mid-Feb (most mid-Aug to Jan); multi-brooded, usually renesting rapidly after failure or success, mean of three nesting attempts per territory per season. Breeds in pairs, sometimes co-operatively and often colonially; breeding colonies, or “neighbourhoods”, composed of birds in several adjacent territories, at least some of which persist throughout year (some known to exist for at least several decades), but permanence varies, possibly with variation in food and weather. Nest often built by female alone, occasionally by both pair-members, a tightly woven cup of grass, pieces of bark, spider web and egg sacs and, less often, plant down, twigs, leaves, wool, fur or hair, feathers, lichen and moss, and roots or rootlets, usually lined with plant down or bark or, sometimes, feathers, fine grass, fur or wool, and leaves; race cassidix external diameter 7·8–11 cm, depth, 6·2–10·2 cm, internal diameter 5·7 cm, depth 6 cm, other races combined external diameter 6·4–10·2 cm, depth 5·7–10·2 cm, internal diameter 3·8–6·4 cm; depth 3·8–5·1 cm; usually suspended, sometimes supported (very occasionally on ground), in living or dead understorey shrub, less often in tree, sapling, epicormic growth or fallen branches, ferns, grass tussock, nest of cassidix generally in dense shrubby thicket and often over standing or running water (usually no more than 0·5 m deep); throughout range nest 0·05–16 m (mean 1·4 m) above ground, cassidix 0·5–7 m (mean 2·2 m). Clutch usually 2 eggs, occasionally 1 or 3, and once four young recorded in nest, mean 1·98 (cassidix mean 2·01); incubation mostly or solely by female, fed on nest by male, period 14–16 days; chicks brooded by female, fed by both sexes and by any helpers present, nestling period from 10 days (probably minimum period) to 16 days, probably usually 10–14 days; fledglings fed by breeding pair and any helpers, mostly independent after 6 weeks of age, but fed sporadically up to at least week 14. Nests parasitized by Fan-tailed (Cacomantis flabelliformis) and Pallid Cuckoos (Heteroscenes pallidus) and Shining Bronze-cuckoo (Chalcites lucidus). From 128 eggs in 65 nests, 0·11 fledged young per nest, and of 89 nests 24·7% fledged at least one young; of 62 nesting attempts by race cassidix, 59·7% produced at least one fledged young, mean productivity of nests with eggs 0·53 young fledged and 0·48 young raised to independence.

Not globally threatened. Race cassidix, sometimes treated as separate species, listed as “endangered” nationally and “critically endangered” in Victoria; CITES I. Locally common in most of range; no estimates of total population of species. Race meltoni recorded at densities of 12·5 birds/ha. Population of cassidix in 2000 contained 37 breeding pairs (and 36 fledglings produced); densities of up to 6 breeding birds/ha. This race now confined to small section of creek-line (of c. 5 km²) near Yellingbo, but formerly occurred throughout much of SW Gippsland along tributaries of middle Yarra R (area of 2000–3000 km²); three of the four remaining populations have almost certainly become extinct since 1983. This race has declined primarily as a result of habitat loss following clearing for agriculture, which produced a cascading series of impacts: clearance of natural habitat changed patterns of runoff, subjecting remnant trees to increased levels of stress and making them more susceptible to infestation by defoliating psyllids, which, in turn, encourages colonization by Manorina melanophrys; latter species causes cassidix to spend increased amounts of time in defending territories, possibly leading to reduced breeding success. At Yellingbo, cassidix visited nearby areas immediately after Manorina melanophrys had been culled, and established territories within 6 months. An artificial levee in Cockatoo Swamp, within Yellingbo, caused channelization and subsequent erosion and sedimentation of a section of Cockatoo Creek, leading to dieback of vegetation at a major colony in 1990s, resulting in twelve territories being abandoned, becoming non-breeding territories, or being incorporated into larger breeding territories of other birds; populations of Cardinia Creek and Cockatoo ultimately extirpated by bushfires in Feb 1983. Replanting of suitable vegetation at Yellingbo began in 1978, and the honeyeaters have foraged and bred in these revegetated areas. Population of cassidix lives within the Yellingbo Nature Conservation Reserve. A captive management programme was established in 1989; in 2000 there were 35 birds in captivity.