Madagascar Fish-Eagle Icthyophaga vociferoides Scientific name definitions

60–66 cm (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ); male 2,200–2,700 g, female 2,800–3,500 g (2 Safford, R. J., and A. F. A. Hawkins, Editors (2013). The Birds of Africa. Volume 8. The Malagasy Region. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ); wingspan 165–180 cm (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). White tail  against overall brown plumage distinctive; sharply defined white mask with dark streak  through eye. Sexes similar, but female is 4–9% larger (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ), e.g. female wing measures 506–528 mm versus 471–498 mm male wing (2 Safford, R. J., and A. F. A. Hawkins, Editors (2013). The Birds of Africa. Volume 8. The Malagasy Region. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Irides brown, cere and legs whitish (grayer in immature) (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Juvenile plumage (retained for ca. 20 months) (2 Safford, R. J., and A. F. A. Hawkins, Editors (2013). The Birds of Africa. Volume 8. The Malagasy Region. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ) duller brown, evenly streaked whitish above, mottled yellow-buff to whitish below, with rufous throat (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ) and dark terminal band to tail. Immature stages variable, in part due to overlapping annual molts, assuming adult plumage in fifth year (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Much duller than wholly allopatric African Fish-Eagle (Icthyophaga vocifer), which is slightly larger, longer-winged, and longer-tailed (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ) but uses similar distinctive vocal display. Could only be confused with Madagascar Buzzard (Buteo brachypterus) or Madagascar Harrier-Hawk (Polyboroides radiatus), from which separated by white tail and cheeks in adult, and huge size, strong head and short tail of juvenile; all other Malagasy raptors are also rather smaller and have quite different structure (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ).

Closely related to African Fish-Eagle; the two are sister to the pair White-bellied Sea-Eagle (Icthyophaga leucogaster) and Sanford's Sea-Eagle (Icthyophaga sanfordi) (3 Lerner, H.R.L. and Mindell, D.P. (2005). Phylogeny of eagles, Old World vultures, and other Accipitridae based on nuclear and mitochondrial DNA. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 37(2): 327–346. Close ). Monotypic.

Coastal western Madagascar (4 Johnson, J.A., Tingay, R.E., Culver, M., Hailer, F., Clarke, M.L. and Mindell, D.P. (2009). Long-term survival despite low genetic diversity in the critically endangered Madagascar fish-eagle. Mol. Ecol. 18(1): 54–63. Close , 5 Watson, R.T., Razafindramanana, S., Thorstrom, R. and Rafanomezantsoa, S. (1999). Breeding biology, extra-pair birds, productivity, siblicide and conservation of the Madagascar Fish Eagle. Ostrich 70(2): 105–111. Close ).

Shores of seas, lakes , and large rivers, favoring rocky offshore islands and wooded perimeters, including mangroves (sometimes as small as 2 ha) provided there are tall trees present (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ); occurs up to 1,200 m (at least formerly) (2 Safford, R. J., and A. F. A. Hawkins, Editors (2013). The Birds of Africa. Volume 8. The Malagasy Region. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Compared to unoccupied lakes, those used by fish-eagles are deeper and clearer, and support more individual fish and a greater diversity of fish species, but are also characterized by suitable numbers of large shoreline trees (6 Berkelman, J., Fraser, J.D. and Watson, R.T. (1999). Lake selection by Madagascar Fish-Eagles. Auk. 116(4): 976-983. Close ). Now mainly coastal, but recorded up to 80–100 km inland, e.g. along lower Tsiribihina River (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ).

None recorded, as range is now much reduced. Territory size 24–273 ha and home range 244–487 ha (mean 350 ha), but most time is spent within core area of 189 ha (2 Safford, R. J., and A. F. A. Hawkins, Editors (2013). The Birds of Africa. Volume 8. The Malagasy Region. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Immatures suspected to be strongly dispersive and wander up to 200 km (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Previous records from eastern coast and those from Mauritius suggest considerable dispersion.

Mostly surface-dwelling fish, including introduced Tilapia, and some crabs; occasionally carrion (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Coastal birds appear to specialize in cornetfish (Fistularia) and needlefish (Tylosurus), but lake-inhabiting birds take many exotic species such as Oreochromis, Tilapia zilii (65% of 68 identified captures), Heterotis niloticus (10%), Ophicephalus striatus (15%) and Cyprinus carpio (< 5%), but also Megalops cyprinoides and Arius madagascariensis (both less than 5%) (7 Berkelman, J., Fraser, J.D. and Watson, R.T. (1999). Madagascar Fish-Eagle prey preference and foraging success. Wilson Bull.. 111(1): 15-21. Close ). Prey size generally 13–17 cm long, up to 35 cm, and weigh up to 1.5 kg (2 Safford, R. J., and A. F. A. Hawkins, Editors (2013). The Birds of Africa. Volume 8. The Malagasy Region. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Occasionally (perhaps specific individuals) takes domestic livestock (duckling and turkey poults) (2 Safford, R. J., and A. F. A. Hawkins, Editors (2013). The Birds of Africa. Volume 8. The Malagasy Region. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Hunts from perches over water and roosts in tall trees near shore. Spends long periods perched interspersed with some soaring high over territory. Still-hunts and then plunge-dives to take prey from water surface, but occasionally also by dropping onto prey during exploratory, soaring flights (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Generally returns to same perch within five minutes of making kill  , but prey occasionally eaten on ground, if bulky or struggling (2 Safford, R. J., and A. F. A. Hawkins, Editors (2013). The Birds of Africa. Volume 8. The Malagasy Region. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Attacks, and probably pirates prey from other waterbirds, e.g. African Spoonbill (Platalea alba) and Humblot's Heron (Ardea humbloti) (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ), and predation of a young Little Egret (Egretta garzetta) was recently observed (8 Koenig, P. (2012). Une importante colonie d’Ardéidés et de Threskiornithidés dans l’estuaire de la Loza au nord-ouest de Madagascar. Bulletin of the African Bird Club 19(1):39–41. Close ); also kleptoparasitizes Black Kite (Milvus migrans) co-operatively (7 Berkelman, J., Fraser, J.D. and Watson, R.T. (1999). Madagascar Fish-Eagle prey preference and foraging success. Wilson Bull.. 111(1): 15-21. Close ). Usually encountered in pairs .

Very vocal at all seasons and times of day, even before dawn (2 Safford, R. J., and A. F. A. Hawkins, Editors (2013). The Birds of Africa. Volume 8. The Malagasy Region. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Loud, shrill, gull-like ko ko koy-koy-koy-koy-koy, given with head thrown back, and rather like that of African Fish-Eagle, repeated at regular short intervals, averaging ca. 2 calls/minute over 5–12 minutes (2 Safford, R. J., and A. F. A. Hawkins, Editors (2013). The Birds of Africa. Volume 8. The Malagasy Region. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ); usually given from perch but more occasionally in flight (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Male calls significantly higher-pitched than those of female, and the two may duet, perched side by side, audible at > 1 km (2 Safford, R. J., and A. F. A. Hawkins, Editors (2013). The Birds of Africa. Volume 8. The Malagasy Region. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Very young chicks give low-volume peep, peep, peep and monosyllabic three-hoot call; when older, they give gwa, gwa, gwa when hungry or cold; post-fledging give ko ko koy koy lasting two seconds, higher-pitched than adult, sometimes with fifth note added and preceded by a repeated, high-pitched tuuuiiiiiii (2 Safford, R. J., and A. F. A. Hawkins, Editors (2013). The Birds of Africa. Volume 8. The Malagasy Region. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ).

Laying late May–mid July (9 Watson, R.T., Razafindramanana, S., Thorstrom, R. and Rafanomezantsoa, S. (1999). Breeding biology, extra-pair birds, productivity, siblicide and conservation of the Madagascar Fish Eagle. Ostrich. 70(2): 105-111. Close ), with overall season extending until December (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Displays, both aerial and vocal (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ), start mid April (2 Safford, R. J., and A. F. A. Hawkins, Editors (2013). The Birds of Africa. Volume 8. The Malagasy Region. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Both sexes build (9 Watson, R.T., Razafindramanana, S., Thorstrom, R. and Rafanomezantsoa, S. (1999). Breeding biology, extra-pair birds, productivity, siblicide and conservation of the Madagascar Fish Eagle. Ostrich. 70(2): 105-111. Close ) large stick nest  (100–120 cm wide, 30–50 cm deep) (2 Safford, R. J., and A. F. A. Hawkins, Editors (2013). The Birds of Africa. Volume 8. The Malagasy Region. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ), lined with green leaves, on an island cliff 6–8 m above ground (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ), in a mangrove or tree (frequently Tamarindus indica or Adansonia) (10 Watson, R.T., Berkelman, J., Rabarisoa, R., Thorstrom, R. and Watson, C.R.B. (2000). Description of nesting and foraging habitat of the Madagascar Fish-eagle Haliaeetus vociferoides: a conservation initiative. Ostrich. 71(1–2): 336–340. Close ) within 900 m of water (10 Watson, R.T., Berkelman, J., Rabarisoa, R., Thorstrom, R. and Watson, C.R.B. (2000). Description of nesting and foraging habitat of the Madagascar Fish-eagle Haliaeetus vociferoides: a conservation initiative. Ostrich. 71(1–2): 336–340. Close ), typically 7.4–29 m above ground (10 Watson, R.T., Berkelman, J., Rabarisoa, R., Thorstrom, R. and Watson, C.R.B. (2000). Description of nesting and foraging habitat of the Madagascar Fish-eagle Haliaeetus vociferoides: a conservation initiative. Ostrich. 71(1–2): 336–340. Close ). Other nest-trees recorded include: Alleanthus greveanus (n = 4), Neobeguea mahafaliensis (n = 4), Colvillea racemosa (n = 3), Cordyla madagascariensis (n = 2), Pandanus spp. (n = 2), Acacia sp. (n = 1), Aderie microphylla (n = 1), Cedrelopsis grevei (n = 1), Poupartia silvatica (n = 1) , Stereospermum euphorioides (n = 1), Terminalia sp. (n = 1), Cephalanthus spathelliferus (n = 1), Pterygota perrieri (n = 1), Meliaceae sp. (n = 1), Apocynaceae sp. (n = 1), Albizzia sp. (n = 1), Crateva greveana (n = 1), and Ficus cocculifolia (n = 1) (10 Watson, R.T., Berkelman, J., Rabarisoa, R., Thorstrom, R. and Watson, C.R.B. (2000). Description of nesting and foraging habitat of the Madagascar Fish-eagle Haliaeetus vociferoides: a conservation initiative. Ostrich. 71(1–2): 336–340. Close ). Material may be added throughout the breeding season (9 Watson, R.T., Razafindramanana, S., Thorstrom, R. and Rafanomezantsoa, S. (1999). Breeding biology, extra-pair birds, productivity, siblicide and conservation of the Madagascar Fish Eagle. Ostrich. 70(2): 105-111. Close ) and nest may be reused in subsequent season, but most pairs relocate < 1 km (up to 2.3 km recorded) (2 Safford, R. J., and A. F. A. Hawkins, Editors (2013). The Birds of Africa. Volume 8. The Malagasy Region. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Very rarely lays replacement clutch if first is lost (2 Safford, R. J., and A. F. A. Hawkins, Editors (2013). The Birds of Africa. Volume 8. The Malagasy Region. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Usually two white eggs, 20% of clutches were of single eggs (9 Watson, R.T., Razafindramanana, S., Thorstrom, R. and Rafanomezantsoa, S. (1999). Breeding biology, extra-pair birds, productivity, siblicide and conservation of the Madagascar Fish Eagle. Ostrich. 70(2): 105-111. Close ); mean dimensions 69.2 ± 0.8 mm × 52.6 ± 0.6 mm, and mass 100.9 ± 3.4 g (9 Watson, R.T., Razafindramanana, S., Thorstrom, R. and Rafanomezantsoa, S. (1999). Breeding biology, extra-pair birds, productivity, siblicide and conservation of the Madagascar Fish Eagle. Ostrich. 70(2): 105-111. Close ); incubation 37–43 (mean 39.7) days, mainly by female (59–88% of time) (9 Watson, R.T., Razafindramanana, S., Thorstrom, R. and Rafanomezantsoa, S. (1999). Breeding biology, extra-pair birds, productivity, siblicide and conservation of the Madagascar Fish Eagle. Ostrich. 70(2): 105-111. Close ) provisioned by male, hatch at 3–5-day intervals (2 Safford, R. J., and A. F. A. Hawkins, Editors (2013). The Birds of Africa. Volume 8. The Malagasy Region. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ); fledging formerly stated to be ca. 120 days, but is apparently 75–96 (2 Safford, R. J., and A. F. A. Hawkins, Editors (2013). The Birds of Africa. Volume 8. The Malagasy Region. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ) (mean 82) days (9 Watson, R.T., Razafindramanana, S., Thorstrom, R. and Rafanomezantsoa, S. (1999). Breeding biology, extra-pair birds, productivity, siblicide and conservation of the Madagascar Fish Eagle. Ostrich. 70(2): 105-111. Close ). Chicks have white down, weigh 80 g at day 3, reach ca. 2,500 g at day 54 (2 Safford, R. J., and A. F. A. Hawkins, Editors (2013). The Birds of Africa. Volume 8. The Malagasy Region. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ); older chick eliminates its younger sibling within ten days of hatching (in all five cases where the second egg hatched in one study) (9 Watson, R.T., Razafindramanana, S., Thorstrom, R. and Rafanomezantsoa, S. (1999). Breeding biology, extra-pair birds, productivity, siblicide and conservation of the Madagascar Fish Eagle. Ostrich. 70(2): 105-111. Close ); provisioned entirely by male for first week of life, although female overall takes 80% of responsibility for brooding and feeding duties (9 Watson, R.T., Razafindramanana, S., Thorstrom, R. and Rafanomezantsoa, S. (1999). Breeding biology, extra-pair birds, productivity, siblicide and conservation of the Madagascar Fish Eagle. Ostrich. 70(2): 105-111. Close ). Of three nests tested, two fledged two young using an abbreviated captive-rearing period in which removed siblings were reintroduced to nest as soon as they could defend themselves and compete for food (11 Watson, R.T., Thomsett, S. and O'Daniel, D. (1995). Growth, development and experimental management of the Madagascar Fish-Eagle (Haliaeetus vociferoides). Journal of Raptor Research. 29(1): 68. Close ), and such sibling rescue increased production from four to six young in sample of ten nests (12 Watson, R.T., Thomsett, S., O'Daniel, D. and Lewis, R. (1996). Breeding, growth, development, and management of the Madagascar Fish-Eagle (Haliaeetus vociferoides). Journal of Raptor Research. 30(1): 21-27. Close ). Co-operative breeding and co-operative polyandry (with all attendant males copulating with female) both recorded: recent study established the presence of 1–3 extra-pair birds in the immediate proximity of breeding pairs in 40 (42%) of 95 pair-years, and these birds (which appear to be progeny from previous years) participated briefly in incubation and nestling care (including provisioning) at two nests (9 Watson, R.T., Razafindramanana, S., Thorstrom, R. and Rafanomezantsoa, S. (1999). Breeding biology, extra-pair birds, productivity, siblicide and conservation of the Madagascar Fish Eagle. Ostrich. 70(2): 105-111. Close ). Young perhaps have decreasing opportunities to disperse (9 Watson, R.T., Razafindramanana, S., Thorstrom, R. and Rafanomezantsoa, S. (1999). Breeding biology, extra-pair birds, productivity, siblicide and conservation of the Madagascar Fish Eagle. Ostrich. 70(2): 105-111. Close ). Success within occupied territories was 0.15 fledged young/territory in 65 pair-years, though other studies have suggested higher productivity (13 Rabarisoa, R. (2001). Productivite du Pygargue de Madagascar, Haliaeetus vociferoides, dans la region d’Antsalova, Madagascar. Ostrich. Suppl. 15: 263. Close ), and apart from failure to lay eggs (21 of 55 instances), siblicide accounted for most of reduced productivity (9 Watson, R.T., Razafindramanana, S., Thorstrom, R. and Rafanomezantsoa, S. (1999). Breeding biology, extra-pair birds, productivity, siblicide and conservation of the Madagascar Fish Eagle. Ostrich. 70(2): 105-111. Close ).

CRITICALLY ENDANGERED. CITES II. Extremely small and probably declining global population; possibly stable over longer period. Confined to western coast of Madagascar, where total in 2010 estimated at ca. 360 individuals. Only ten pairs known in late 1970s (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ) but 45–50 breeding pairs at 48 occupied territories estimated in 1985; some pairs with mean inter-nest distance of 1.48 km. In early 1990s, at least 222 adults and 99 breeding pairs recorded at 105 sites (14 Rabarisoa, R., Watson, R. T., Thorstrom, R. and Berkelman, J. (1997). Status of the Madagascar Fish-eagle Haliaeetus vociferoides in 1995. Ostrich. 68(1): 8-12. Close ); intensive surveys in 1992 indicated twice the previous known density in southern part of range (21 pairs, as opposed to ten). Current maximum total may be ca. 120 pairs (based on a 2010 estimate) within overall range of 40,700 km². Appears to have been recorded from all western coastal regions until about 1940, and was still reported regularly in southwest until 1975. Now restricted to 600 km of shoreline and to rocky islands and lakes in the Antsalova region, between Antsiranana and Belo sur Mer, especially in Antsalova region westner of Bemaraha Reserve, along Tsiribihina River, and on coast from Mahajamba Bay north to island of Nosy Hara. Some of these areas now subject to management by local communities with assistance from The Peregrine Fund, to prevent overfishing and cutting of tall trees (15 Demey, R. and Kirwan, G. (2006). Communities manage Madagascar Fish Eagle habitat. Bull. African Bird Club. 13(1): 15. Close ), in response to the presence of seasonal migrant fishermen who rapidly reduce fish stocks to a minimum around the time the young are fledging (16 Watson, R.T. and Rabarisoa, R. (2000). Sakalava fishermen and Madagascar Fish Eagles: enhancing traditional conservation rules to control resource abuse that threatens a key breeding area for an endangered eagle. Ostrich. 71(1–2): 2–10. Close ). Exact reasons for decline remain uncertain. Persecution of adults and nests remains a problem (9 Watson, R.T., Razafindramanana, S., Thorstrom, R. and Rafanomezantsoa, S. (1999). Breeding biology, extra-pair birds, productivity, siblicide and conservation of the Madagascar Fish Eagle. Ostrich. 70(2): 105-111. Close ); not found to be affected by pesticides, but degradation of waterbodies through deforestation and poor agricultural practices leading to soil erosion in catchment areas may be a primary concern.