Ring Ouzel Turdus torquatus Scientific name definitions

23–24 cm; 90–138 g. Male nominate race  is all black except for bold white crescent-shaped breastband  , narrow greyish scaling (sometimes absent above) on mantle, scapulars, belly and flanks, pale whitish-grey edges of flight-feathers and wing-coverts; bill yellow; legs grey-brown. Female  is like male, but browner  on head to scapulars and throat, narrower and less distinct whitish breastband. Juvenile is like female, but with grey-buff streaks above , whitish chin and mid-throat, no breastband or only faint one. Race <em>alpestris</em> has broader white scalloping below , can appear heavily scaled; <em>amicorum</em> has larger breastband, and whitish panel in wing formed by broader edges and tips of feathers.

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Editor's Note: Additional distribution information for this taxon can be found in the 'Subspecies' article above. In the future we will develop a range-wide distribution article.

Mountain steppe with conifers, including wet spruce (Picea) and spruce-fir woodland (P. abies-Abies alba), in C Europe also conifer-beech (Fagus), extending into bushy scrub with Rhododendron hirsutum and Pinus mugo in alpine regions, dry rugged upland slopes, heath and heather moorland with bracken, stones and grass patches, subalpine meadows with scattered shrubs and trees, low shrubbery above tree-line on rocky slopes. Preference for heather-grass mosaics and Nardus-Molinia grassland in Britain, where most nesting territories contain small crags, gulleys, scree and/or boulders, as well as sloping or flat areas with short vegetation and scattered trees or bushes. Outlying population in Belgium (Hautes-Fagnes plateau) uses young spruce stands on weak slopes away from S aspects. In W Carpathians in S Poland, seems to prefer middle and upper subalpine Carpathian forests at 685–1316 m; studies during Apr–Jul 2008 indicated preference for higher altitudes and proximity of clear-cut areas (presumably a substitute for timber-line and alpine meadows), but species avoided presence of small mountain meadows (presumably because of succession of dense vegetation layer on former mountain pasture) (3 Ciach, M. and Mrowiec, W. (2013). Habitat selection of the Ring Ouzel Turdus torquatus in the Western Carpathians: the role of the landscape mosaic. Bird Study. 60(1): 22-34. . Close ). In Armenia and Caucasus, occupies upper levels of conifer stands, rhododendron thickets, juniper (Juniperus) scrub and shrubs on steep rocky ground. In study of 110 radiotracked juveniles in Scotland in 2007–2008, these appeared to require short, grassy, invertebrate-rich habitat during early summer, and taller, heather-dominated, berry-rich areas in late summer; use of two distinct habitat types during pre-migration period suggests need for detailed study of juveniles’ requirements (4 Sim, I. M. W., Ludwig, S. C., Grant, M. C., Loughrey, J. L., Rebecca, G. W. and Redpath, S. (2013). Seasonal variation in foraging conditions for Ring Ouzels Turdus torquatus in upland habitats and their effects on juvenile habitat selection. Ibis. 155(1): 42-54. Close ). In NW Africa winters abundantly in juniper forest (J. phoenicea and J. thurifera) mostly at 1800–2200 m, very often near rivers or waterholes; in surveys in Morocco during Dec 2007 to Jan 2010, relatively few individuals recorded, all between 1290 m and 2092 m (5 Green, M., Kaleta, R. and Keirle, I. (2012). Habitat associations and winter distribution of Ring Ouzels in the Atlas Mountains, Morocco. British Birds. 105: 674-677. Close ), but observers in Jan 2011 reported larger numbers (numerous small groups) at higher elevations, at 2489 m (6 Collins, T. and Grindle, M. (2013). Ring Ouzels in the Atlas Mountains - more birds higher up? British Birds. 106: 47. Close ), in both cases in habitat characterized by extensive area of open juniper forest. On migration in Britain, frequents steep chalk hillsides with unimproved herb-rich short grass and patchy scrub, commonly also coastal grassland. Sea-level to 1200 m in N Europe, 600–2000 m in C Europe; in Turkey generally 1300–3000 m; generally 1200–2700 m in N Africa in winter.

Migratory. British and N European breeders (nominate race) appear to winter mainly in S Spain and NW Africa; departure from breeding areas Sept, passage of Scandinavian birds in N Germany mid-Sept to Oct, reaching NW Africa from mid-Oct but main arrival from mid-Nov. Spring vacation of Africa Mar–Apr, Scandinavian birds taking more W route than in autumn; arrival in Britain from mid-Mar, Norway Apr–May, but peak passage N Scotland (Shetland) in May, males 10 days ahead of females. Race alpestris moves to higher elevations immediately after breeding; subsequently, W populations tend to move initially W or SW, passing through Swiss Alps, where nominate passes c. 2 weeks later than local alpestris and with lower weight but higher fat reserves (suggesting rapid onward, possibly leapfrogging, movement); C European alpestris then winter S to S parts of breeding range or move into Mediterranean Basin, including NW Africa. E populations of alpestris appear to move SE to Balkan Peninsula, with passage at Bosphorus (W Turkey) late Aug to Oct, mainly late Sept to early Oct; present Cyprus Oct–Mar but peak numbers Nov, suggesting onward movement. Arrives back in W Alps mid-Mar to mid-Apr, with similar schedule in Ukraine. Race amicorum leaves breeding grounds late Sept and Oct, but winter records relatively sparse and diffuse, Oct–Feb in Libya, late Oct to early Dec in Egypt, Nov–Mar in Gulf states , with arrival back in N Caucasus early Mar to early Apr, steadily ascending mountains as snow melts. Rare passage migrant (presumably amicorum and/or alpestris) in Israel, mainly Nov and mid-Feb to mid-Mar. Vagrants recorded W to Iceland, Azores and Madeira Is and S to C Libya and Oman. Regular winter visitor to Tenerife I (Canary Is) (7 Rumeu B., Padilla D.P. and Nogales M. (2009). The key role of a Ring Ouzel Turdus torquatus wintering population in seed dispersal of the endangered endemic Juniperus cedrus in an insular environment. Acta Ornithologica. 44: 199–204. Close ).

Invertebrates, seeds, fruits  . Foods include adult and larval beetles (Coleoptera) of at least 13 species, adult and larval flies (Diptera) of at least three families, grasshoppers (Orthoptera), earwigs (Dermaptera), moths, butterflies  , caterpillars  , bugs, hymenopterans (ants, sawflies), spiders, millipedes (Diplopoda), small snails, slugs, small lizards, salamanders; also, mostly in autumn and winter, fruits of bramble (Rubus), strawberry (Fragaria), cherry (Prunus), hawthorn (Crataegus), rowan  (Sorbus), elder (Sambucus), currant (Ribes), buckthorn (Rhamnus), alder buckthorn (Frangula), viburnum (Viburnum), mistletoe (Viscum), ivy (Hedera), bilberry (Vaccinium), crowberry (Empetrum), lantana (Lantana), juniper, vine (Vitis) and olive (Olea). In spring and early summer, in Europe, mainly earthworms and adult and larval insects, shifting in rest of year to fruits. In Ukraine, eats mainly fly larvae, beetle adults and larvae, and caterpillars in spring; in summer adult beetles comprise 70% of diet, along with earthworms, millipedes and occasional lizards; in autumn plant material dominates. Earthworms dominate nestling diet in Britain, although other foods provided include beetles and their larvae, tipulid larvae, ants, sawflies and their larvae, spiders, caterpillars and millipedes; in Romania, 924 items brought to nestlings comprised by weight 42% lepidopterans (mostly caterpillars), 29% earthworms, 24% beetles (mostly adults), 4% hymenopterans (largely ants) and 1% others. Radiotracked juveniles in Scotland fed on invertebrates during Jun to mid-Jul, and from mid-Jul to early Sept fed at higher altitude mainly on moorland berries, e.g. bilberries and crowberries (4 Sim, I. M. W., Ludwig, S. C., Grant, M. C., Loughrey, J. L., Rebecca, G. W. and Redpath, S. (2013). Seasonal variation in foraging conditions for Ring Ouzels Turdus torquatus in upland habitats and their effects on juvenile habitat selection. Ibis. 155(1): 42-54. Close ). On migration in Britain, birds on short grass fed in spring in short runs and pecks, never probing for worms, apparently on abundant spiders and flies; in autumn in same habitat, fed almost entirely on berries, notably elderberries (Sambucus nigra), then haws, and occasionally white bryony (Bryonia dioica) and blackberries (Rubus fruticosus). In SE Spain, Oct–Mar, eats mainly juniper berries (small proportion also of Berberis vulgaris in early winter), vegetable matter forming more than 90% of diet throughout, but also some beetles and Iulus millipedes and, occasionally, grasshoppers, flies, ants and insect larvae; similarly, wintering birds in Algeria eat mainly juniper berries; consumes other fruits in areas of Spain and N Africa where junipers absent or few.

Song  , by male from elevated perch (or even heather clump) and sometimes in display-flight, a series of slightly varied phrases consisting of 2–4 simple fluty melancholy notes, e.g. “pi-ríí, pi-ríí, pi-ríí” and “trruu-trruu-trruu tjii-tjii-tjii”, at start of breeding season sometimes interspersed with chuckling and warbling sounds. Subsong a quiet series of piping and chuckling notes. Calls include characteristic loud “tac-tac-tac”  in mild agitation, becoming harsher “chrech-rech-rech-rechra” in alarm; softer “tjuck-tjuck-tjuck” on ground or when taking wing (when sometimes also “dcherrr” or “tschwierrr”); also chuckling “tchuuk-tchuuk-tchuuk” in migrating flocks, “zrrp” or “tsierk” (sometimes doubled) in flight, and thin high “ssii” as warning of aerial predator.

Mid-Apr to mid-Jul in British Is and Alps; in Scandinavia, early May to end Jun in S and late May to early Aug in N; sometimes double-brooded, this probably usual in S of range. Solitary nester, in many areas territories tend to be linearly distributed along watercourses; nests generally well spaced, in closest-packed situations 160–200 m apart, generally with some overlap in home ranges, which in one British study ranged from 1·7 ha to 9·8 ha (mean 5·3 ha). Nest a bulky cup of dry grass, stems, moss and leaves mixed with mud, lined with dry grass, placed on ground or 1–16 m (average 3·5 m) up in shrub or small tree; of 297 sites in Britain, 9% on ground, 36% below 45 cm in vegetation, 4% at 45–90 cm in vegetation and 2% up to 3 m off ground in tree, 26 nests in Poland all close to trunk in tree at average height 3·5 m (range 1–16) m. Eggs  3–6, mainly 4–5, pale blue to greenish-blue with small pale reddish-brown blotches; incubation period 13–14 days; nestling period 14–16 days; post-fledging dependence 12 days, sometimes longer. Breeding success at one low-density site in Bavarian Alps only 40%; of 79 clutches in Britain, 24 lost before hatching to predation and desertion; of 183 eggs in Romania, 5% addled, 5% preyed on by squirrels (Sciurus vulgaris) and Eurasian Nutcracker (Nucifraga caryocatactes), of resulting 164 nestlings 79% hatched and 21% lost to same predators. In a study in NE Scotland 62.8% of individually marked females made second breeding attempts and 3.5% made third attempts, in two cases (1.8%) successfully rearing three broods in the same year (8 Sim, I.M.W., Rebecca, G.W. and Wilkinson, N.I. (2012). Frequency of multiple brooding in Ring Ouzels, including first documented cases of triple brooding. Bird Study. 59: 358–362. Close ). Of 110 juveniles radiotracked in UK, those fledged from early-season broods had higher survival during each four-day period for 116 days after fledging than did those from late-season broods; most deaths occurred within first three weeks after fledging, and apparent main cause of mortality was predation by raptors (accounting for 59% of deaths) and mammals (27% of deaths); juvenile survival decreased at time when young became independent (9 Sim, I. M. W., Ludwig, S. C., Grant, M. C., Loughrey, J. L., Rebecca, G. W. and Reid, J. M. (2013). Postfledging Survival, Movements, and Dispersal of Ring Ouzels (Turdus torquatus). Auk. 130(1): 69-77. . Close ). Breeds at 1 year. Causes of mortality of ringed individuals in NW Europe are natural predator 9%, human-related (accidental) 10%, human-related (deliberate, mainly hunters in France) 77%, other 4%.

Not globally threatened (Least Concern). Locally common. Total population in Europe in mid-1990s estimated at 247,032–355,281 pairs, with additional 1000–10,000 pairs in Turkey and 10–100 pairs in Russia. Breeding recorded in 2014 in the N Timan Mts, Arkhangelsk region, c. 300 km E of nearest known breeding site in N Russia (10 Dorofeev, D. (2015). Ring Ouzel breeding in Northern Timan mountains, Russia, in June 2014. Dutch Birding. 37: 105–107. Close ). By 2000, total European population (including European Russia and Turkey) revised to 310,000–670,000 pairs and considered generally stable. Optimal density in Alps 60–80 pairs/km² but generally much lower (e.g. 37 pairs/km² in Haute-Savoie); 22 pairs/km² in Jura Mts and 20–30 pairs/km² in Ukraine; in more open habitats in Britain 8 pairs/km² declining to 1·3 pairs/km², but in optimal habitat density of 0·34 pairs/ha (34 pairs/km²) can occur. In most of European range stable or decreasing, with a few minor local increases. Population in Britain estimated at 6157–7549 birds in 1999 and 4659–5332 birds in 2012 (11 Wotton, S.R., Stanbury, A.J., Douse, A. and Eaton, M.A. (2016). The status of the Ring Ouzel Turdus torquatus in the UK in 27312. Bird Study. 63(2): 155–164. Close ). Causes of declines unknown, but increased human disturbance (development of many upland areas for outdoor leisure pursuits), competition with large congeners (T. merula, T. viscivorus, T. pilaris) and climatic change have been suggested, although habitat alteration most likely. Widespread loss of juniper forest in S Spain and NW Africa may be partly responsible for decline in British breeding population, but recent analysis suggests that large-scale afforestation in uplands (where population in 1999 estimated at 6157–7549 territories) may be a negative influence; of standard areas (2 × 2 km) known to be occupied in 1988–1991, 39–43% were unoccupied in 1999. Hunting of NW European migrants passing through S Europe may also be significant.