Abyssinian White-eye Zosterops abyssinicus Scientific name definitions

Zosterops abyssinicus is just one of many white-eyes whose taxonomy has been revolutionized in recent decades. This species previously encapsulated populations now separated as the Pale White-eye (Zosterops flavilateralis), which occurs further south in East Africa, and the Socotra White-eye (Zosterops socotranus), which is endemic to the ancient island of Socotra, off the Horn of Africa, but politically part of Yemen. The net result is that Abyssinian White-eye as currently constituted is now found only in southern Arabia, Eritrea, much of Ethiopia, small parts of adjacent Sudan, and perhaps Djibouti. Furthermore, yet more turbulence can be expected in the future; the most detailed study conducted to date recovered significant genetic structure within this species and found that birds ascribed to socotranus in northern Somalia are only very distantly related to any of the species just mentioned, whilst a separate investigation uncovered evidence of a morphologically distinctive population in Saudi Arabian mangroves, but without any molecular differentiation.

The Abyssinian White-eye is an omnivorous species, which inhabits a wide variety of more or less wooded country but is absent from the driest and least vegetated regions, and in parts of its African distribution is perhaps excluded from otherwise suitable higher elevations by other Zosterops. Especially in the non-breeding season, the species forms flocks of up to 30 individuals, which occasionally join other birds, but when breeding this white-eye is monogamous and a solitary breeder. At least in some parts of its distribution, the species’ breeding season appears rather prolonged; nevertheless, this aspect of the Abyssinian White-eye’s ecology and natural history is still rather poorly known.

Like the formerly conspecific Socotra White-eye (Zosterops socotranus), this is a rather small-bodied, warbler-like white-eye, with a rather narrow but obvious white eye-ring, largely yellow lores that ‘spill over’ onto the forehead, a yellow throat and upper breast, and otherwise largely dull grayish-and-buff underparts, pale grayish-green to yellowish-green upperparts, and a browner tail.

In Africa, compare Heuglin’s White-eye (Zosterops poliogastrus) and Northern Yellow White-eye (Zosterops senegalensis), both of which overlap in distribution with the present species, but the former is generally found at higher elevations, has a bolder and broader white eye-ring and cleaner whiter underparts (all yellow in subspecies jubaensis in southwest Ethiopia), whilst the latter lacks the grayish-white breast and belly of the present species (underparts all yellow) (1 Fry, C. H. (2000). Promerops gurneyi Verreaux. Gurney’s Sugarbird. In The Birds of Africa. Volume VI (C. H. Fry, S. Keith, and E. K. Urban, Editors), Academic Press, London, UK. pp. 336–338. Close , 2 Redman, N., T. Stevenson, and J. Fanshawe (2009). Birds of the Horn of Africa: Ethiopia, Eritrea, Dijbouti, Somalia and Socotra. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ).

Separation from populations in northern Somalia previously assigned to Socotra White-eye (Zosterops socotranus) (which are in the process of being described as a new species) (3 Martins, F. C., S. C. Cox, M. Irestedt, R. P. Prys-Jones, and J. J. Day (2020). A comprehensive molecular phylogeny of Afrotropical white-eyes (Aves: Zosteropidae) highlights prior underestimation of mainland diversity and complex colonisation history. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 149:106843 Close ) will be difficult in any intervening areas. Having examined specimens (n = 65) of socotranus (both from Socotra and Somalia) in Tring and Washington, Kirwan (4 Kirwan, G. M. (2007). Studies of Socotran birds IV. Synonymization of six endemic bird taxa, with comments on the name Onychognathus blythii creaghi. Sandgrouse 29(2):135–148. Close ) postulated that there are no differences in upperparts/underparts colorations between socotranus and abyssinicus, except the marginally whiter belly of the former, but differences in the forehead patch, mooted by White (5 White, C. M. N. (1963). A Revised Check-list of African Flycatchers, Tits, Tree-creepers, Sunbirds, White-eyes, Honeyeaters, Buntings, Finches, Weavers and Waxbills. Government Printer, Lusaka, Zambia. Close ) seem to be inadmissable.

This species is the only widely distributed white-eye in Arabia, where it is largely confined to the southern littoral and adjacent mountains (6 Porter, R., and S. Aspinall (2010). Birds of the Middle East. Second edition. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). However, there is a tiny population of Indian White-eye (Zosterops palpebrosus) in mangroves on Mahawt Island, in southern Oman (east of the range of the present species). Indian White-eye is brighter yellow-green above, with an obvious yellow forehead, a deeper yellow throat and undertail-coverts, a purer shade of gray over much of the rest of the underparts, and a narrow yellow band on the center of the belly (7 Shirihai, H., and L. Svensson (2018). Handbook of Western Palearctic Birds. Volume 2. Passerines: Flycatchers to Buntings. Bloomsbury, London, UK. Close ).

Arguably even more intriguing is a population in southwest Saudi Arabia of mangrove-dwelling white-eyes that is (on current knowledge) genetically indistinguishable from the present species, but differs in some morphological characters: the head and upperparts, including rump, are yellower green than in adjacent highland birds (Z. a. arabs), with a more obvious and brighter wing panel, more sulfur-yellow throat and undertail-coverts, and less contrast between the lores and throat (8 Babbington, J., C. R. J. Boland, G. M. Kirwan, and M. Schweizer (2020). Morphological differences between ‘Mangrove White‑eye’ and montane Abyssinian White‑eye (Zosterops abyssinicus arabs) in Arabia despite no differentiation in mitochondrial DNA: incipient speciation via niche divergence? Journal of Ornithology 161(4):1051–1060. Close ).

Natal Down

Undescribed.

Juvenile

Basically resembles the adult; the young fledgling has lax plumage, duller (olive) upperparts and underparts (pale yellow chin, otherwise gray), darker eyes and flight feathers, and thick pale yellow gape (1 Fry, C. H. (2000). Promerops gurneyi Verreaux. Gurney’s Sugarbird. In The Birds of Africa. Volume VI (C. H. Fry, S. Keith, and E. K. Urban, Editors), Academic Press, London, UK. pp. 336–338. Close , based on photo taken in Oman). Shirihai and Svensson (7 Shirihai, H., and L. Svensson (2018). Handbook of Western Palearctic Birds. Volume 2. Passerines: Flycatchers to Buntings. Bloomsbury, London, UK. Close ) suggested that juveniles also have a more extensively pinkish-colored bill.

First-year

Compared to post-breeding adult in autumn, this plumage is characterized by more weakly textured and less fresh primary-coverts and remiges (especially the primaries), with thinner and sharper fringes to the primary-coverts (more diffuse in adult). In spring, this age is even more similar to the adult, but has the primary-coverts and primaries more worn, with narrower and more bleached fringes (7 Shirihai, H., and L. Svensson (2018). Handbook of Western Palearctic Birds. Volume 2. Passerines: Flycatchers to Buntings. Bloomsbury, London, UK. Close ).

Adult

Sexes generally alike, but males may average brighter and greener (less grayish) above and on wing fringes, with a brighter yellow throat, albeit with much overlap in these characters (7 Shirihai, H., and L. Svensson (2018). Handbook of Western Palearctic Birds. Volume 2. Passerines: Flycatchers to Buntings. Bloomsbury, London, UK. Close ). Birds (both sexes) in fresh, post-nuptial plumage, also average brighter and greener above, and on the throat (7 Shirihai, H., and L. Svensson (2018). Handbook of Western Palearctic Birds. Volume 2. Passerines: Flycatchers to Buntings. Bloomsbury, London, UK. Close ). Yellow supraloral stripe extends to yellow area above bill, with narrow blackish-brown line from lores to below narrow white eye-ring; cheeks flecked yellow, and sides of head and neck greenish yellow, grading into mantle and crown; otherwise, forehead to upperparts pale grayish green, becoming yellower on the uppertail-coverts. The flight feathers and primary-coverts are dark brown, edged green to yellowish green (fringes broadest on the secondaries and tertials), and the tail is dark brown, the feathers narrowly edged yellowish green. Chin to throat and center of upper breast variably bright yellow, lower breast and sides medium gray, belly and thighs grayish white, and undertail-coverts pale yellow; underwing and inner borders of flight feathers whitish.

Based on specimens of subspecies arabs, Shirihai and Svensson (7 Shirihai, H., and L. Svensson (2018). Handbook of Western Palearctic Birds. Volume 2. Passerines: Flycatchers to Buntings. Bloomsbury, London, UK. Close ) suggested that adults undertake a complete post-nuptial molt (mostly August–September), whereas post-juvenile molt is partial, involving all of the head and body feathers, and the lesser and median wing-coverts, and most or all of the greater wing-coverts, alula, and tertials, but none of the remiges or primary-coverts, and few or no rectrices. In contrast, the extent of any pre-nuptial molt is largely unknown, but two first-year birds in May and August had replaced a few secondaries.

Bill

Brown in subspecies omoensis (1 Fry, C. H. (2000). Promerops gurneyi Verreaux. Gurney’s Sugarbird. In The Birds of Africa. Volume VI (C. H. Fry, S. Keith, and E. K. Urban, Editors), Academic Press, London, UK. pp. 336–338. Close ); horn-brown maxilla with a pinkish-brown mandible in the nominate (1 Fry, C. H. (2000). Promerops gurneyi Verreaux. Gurney’s Sugarbird. In The Birds of Africa. Volume VI (C. H. Fry, S. Keith, and E. K. Urban, Editors), Academic Press, London, UK. pp. 336–338. Close ); in Arabia, mangrove birds have the proximal end of the maxilla pinkish with the distal half pinkish gray, and the mandible pinkish at upper edge, gradually becoming pinkish gray towards bottom; highland arabs proximal half pale pink and distal half pinkish gray (8 Babbington, J., C. R. J. Boland, G. M. Kirwan, and M. Schweizer (2020). Morphological differences between ‘Mangrove White‑eye’ and montane Abyssinian White‑eye (Zosterops abyssinicus arabs) in Arabia despite no differentiation in mitochondrial DNA: incipient speciation via niche divergence? Journal of Ornithology 161(4):1051–1060. Close ).

Iris

Brown to pale red-brown in the nominate (1 Fry, C. H. (2000). Promerops gurneyi Verreaux. Gurney’s Sugarbird. In The Birds of Africa. Volume VI (C. H. Fry, S. Keith, and E. K. Urban, Editors), Academic Press, London, UK. pp. 336–338. Close ); chestnut in arabs (8 Babbington, J., C. R. J. Boland, G. M. Kirwan, and M. Schweizer (2020). Morphological differences between ‘Mangrove White‑eye’ and montane Abyssinian White‑eye (Zosterops abyssinicus arabs) in Arabia despite no differentiation in mitochondrial DNA: incipient speciation via niche divergence? Journal of Ornithology 161(4):1051–1060. Close ).

Legs and Feet

Brown or pale pink in the nominate (1 Fry, C. H. (2000). Promerops gurneyi Verreaux. Gurney’s Sugarbird. In The Birds of Africa. Volume VI (C. H. Fry, S. Keith, and E. K. Urban, Editors), Academic Press, London, UK. pp. 336–338. Close ); pink gray with pinkish claws in arabs (8 Babbington, J., C. R. J. Boland, G. M. Kirwan, and M. Schweizer (2020). Morphological differences between ‘Mangrove White‑eye’ and montane Abyssinian White‑eye (Zosterops abyssinicus arabs) in Arabia despite no differentiation in mitochondrial DNA: incipient speciation via niche divergence? Journal of Ornithology 161(4):1051–1060. Close ).

Linear Measurements

Overall length 10–12 cm.

Linear measurements (sexes combined, all subspecies arabs), in mm, with means and sample sizes (where available), of live birds and specimens, from Babbington et al. (8 Babbington, J., C. R. J. Boland, G. M. Kirwan, and M. Schweizer (2020). Morphological differences between ‘Mangrove White‑eye’ and montane Abyssinian White‑eye (Zosterops abyssinicus arabs) in Arabia despite no differentiation in mitochondrial DNA: incipient speciation via niche divergence? Journal of Ornithology 161(4):1051–1060. Close ):

Twelve live birds from the highlands of Yemen: wing length 55–59 mm (mean 57.0 mm), tail length 37–44 mm (mean 40.4 mm), tarsus length 19.1–20.1 mm (mean 19.5 mm) (9 Dymond, J. N. (1996). Biometric data of birds in southern Yemen and Socotra, spring 1993. Sandgrouse 17:158–164. Close ).

Additional data from specimens presented by Shirihai and Svensson (7 Shirihai, H., and L. Svensson (2018). Handbook of Western Palearctic Birds. Volume 2. Passerines: Flycatchers to Buntings. Bloomsbury, London, UK. Close ).

Wing formula (subspecies arabs): p1 > pc 2–5 mm; p2 < wingtip 3.5–6.5 mm, = 7/9 (ca. 90%) or = 9 or 9/10 (10%); p3 < wingtip 0.5–2.0 mm; pp4–5(6) about equal or longest; p6 < wingtip 0–2 mm; p7 < wingtip 2–4 mm; p8 < wingtip 3–6 mm; p10 < wingtip 7–9 mm; s1 < wingtip 8.5–10.0 mm (7 Shirihai, H., and L. Svensson (2018). Handbook of Western Palearctic Birds. Volume 2. Passerines: Flycatchers to Buntings. Bloomsbury, London, UK. Close ). Primaries 3–6 are emarginated (7 Shirihai, H., and L. Svensson (2018). Handbook of Western Palearctic Birds. Volume 2. Passerines: Flycatchers to Buntings. Bloomsbury, London, UK. Close ), also in the mangrove birds (8 Babbington, J., C. R. J. Boland, G. M. Kirwan, and M. Schweizer (2020). Morphological differences between ‘Mangrove White‑eye’ and montane Abyssinian White‑eye (Zosterops abyssinicus arabs) in Arabia despite no differentiation in mitochondrial DNA: incipient speciation via niche divergence? Journal of Ornithology 161(4):1051–1060. Close ).

Mass

Zosterops abyssinicus arabs: Yemen 8.5–10.4 g (mean 9.6 g, n = 12) (9 Dymond, J. N. (1996). Biometric data of birds in southern Yemen and Socotra, spring 1993. Sandgrouse 17:158–164. Close ); Saudi Arabian mangroves 6.9–7.8 g (mean 7. 4 g, n = 6); Saudi Arabian highlands 8.5–10.0 g (n = 9) (8 Babbington, J., C. R. J. Boland, G. M. Kirwan, and M. Schweizer (2020). Morphological differences between ‘Mangrove White‑eye’ and montane Abyssinian White‑eye (Zosterops abyssinicus arabs) in Arabia despite no differentiation in mitochondrial DNA: incipient speciation via niche divergence? Journal of Ornithology 161(4):1051–1060. Close ).

Zosterops abyssinicus omoensis: 9 g (n = 3, all males) (specimens at Zoologisches Forschungsmuseum Alexander Koenig, Bonn, examined by GMK).

Usually considered conspecific with the Socotra White-eye (Zosterops socotranus) of Socotra (10 Paynter, R. A., Editor (1967). Check-list of Birds of the World. A Continuation of the Work of James L. Peters. Volume 12. Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, MA, USA. Close , 1 Fry, C. H. (2000). Promerops gurneyi Verreaux. Gurney’s Sugarbird. In The Birds of Africa. Volume VI (C. H. Fry, S. Keith, and E. K. Urban, Editors), Academic Press, London, UK. pp. 336–338. Close , 11 Dickinson, E. C., Editor (2003). The Howard and Moore Complete Checklist of the Birds of the World. Third edition. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close , 12 Dickinson, E. C., and L. Christidis, Editors (2014). The Howard and Moore Complete Checklist of the Birds of the World. Fourth Edition. Volume 2: Passerines. Aves Press, Eastbourne, UK. Close ), especially as the two are only very weakly differentiated in their morphology (4 Kirwan, G. M. (2007). Studies of Socotran birds IV. Synonymization of six endemic bird taxa, with comments on the name Onychognathus blythii creaghi. Sandgrouse 29(2):135–148. Close ), but have proven to be markedly distinct molecularly (13 Cox, S. C., R. P. Prŷs-Jones, J. C. Habel, B. A. Amakobe, and J. J. Day (2014). Niche divergence promotes rapid diversification of East African sky island white-eyes (Aves: Zosteropidae). Molecular Ecology 23(16):4103–4118. Close , 3 Martins, F. C., S. C. Cox, M. Irestedt, R. P. Prys-Jones, and J. J. Day (2020). A comprehensive molecular phylogeny of Afrotropical white-eyes (Aves: Zosteropidae) highlights prior underestimation of mainland diversity and complex colonisation history. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 149:106843 Close ). Furthermore, both Abyssinian White-eye, and the present species, were also routinely lumped with the Pale White-eye (Zosterops flavilateralis) of East Africa until comparatively recently (14 Sibley, C. G., and B. L. Monroe Jr. (1990). Distribution and Taxonomy of Birds of the World. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT, USA. Close , 15 Dowsett, R. J., and F. Dowsett-Lemaire (1993). A contribution to the distribution and taxonomy of Afrotropical and Malagasy birds. Tauraco Research Report 5:1–389. Close , 1 Fry, C. H. (2000). Promerops gurneyi Verreaux. Gurney’s Sugarbird. In The Birds of Africa. Volume VI (C. H. Fry, S. Keith, and E. K. Urban, Editors), Academic Press, London, UK. pp. 336–338. Close , 11 Dickinson, E. C., Editor (2003). The Howard and Moore Complete Checklist of the Birds of the World. Third edition. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ), with the broader species often referred to as the White-breasted White-eye. Martins also (3 Martins, F. C., S. C. Cox, M. Irestedt, R. P. Prys-Jones, and J. J. Day (2020). A comprehensive molecular phylogeny of Afrotropical white-eyes (Aves: Zosteropidae) highlights prior underestimation of mainland diversity and complex colonisation history. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 149:106843 Close ) uncovered a deep genetic split between populations of socotranus in northern Somalia and on Socotra, and plan to name those birds in the first-named region as a new species. The subspecies (species?) present in Djibouti (e.g., in the Forêt du Day) (16 Welch, G., and H. Welch (1984). Birds seen on an expedition to Djibouti. Sandgrouse 6:1–23. Close ) is currently unclear. Another intriguing issue is the presence of an unnamed population in Avicennia marina mangroves in southwest Saudi Arabia; these birds are smaller than montane populations in Arabia, and display several plumage differences, being overall noticeably brighter on the upperparts, and deeper yellow on the throat and undertail-coverts, but are undifferentiated genetically (8 Babbington, J., C. R. J. Boland, G. M. Kirwan, and M. Schweizer (2020). Morphological differences between ‘Mangrove White‑eye’ and montane Abyssinian White‑eye (Zosterops abyssinicus arabs) in Arabia despite no differentiation in mitochondrial DNA: incipient speciation via niche divergence? Journal of Ornithology 161(4):1051–1060. Close ).

Generally slight, but birds in western Ethiopia are overall brighter (1 Fry, C. H. (2000). Promerops gurneyi Verreaux. Gurney’s Sugarbird. In The Birds of Africa. Volume VI (C. H. Fry, S. Keith, and E. K. Urban, Editors), Academic Press, London, UK. pp. 336–338. Close , 4 Kirwan, G. M. (2007). Studies of Socotran birds IV. Synonymization of six endemic bird taxa, with comments on the name Onychognathus blythii creaghi. Sandgrouse 29(2):135–148. Close ), and an unnamed population in mangroves of southwest Saudi Arabia also differ in their brighter and deeper colors, as well as in size (8 Babbington, J., C. R. J. Boland, G. M. Kirwan, and M. Schweizer (2020). Morphological differences between ‘Mangrove White‑eye’ and montane Abyssinian White‑eye (Zosterops abyssinicus arabs) in Arabia despite no differentiation in mitochondrial DNA: incipient speciation via niche divergence? Journal of Ornithology 161(4):1051–1060. Close ).

Zosterops abyssinica Guérin-Méneville, 1843, Revue zoologique (Paris) 6:162.—Abyssinia.

Distribution

Northeast Sudan (region of Erkowit) (17 Nikolaus, G. (1987). Distribution Atlas of Sudan’s Birds with Notes on Habitat and Status. Bonner Zoologische Monographien 25. Zoologisches Forschungsinstitut und Museum Alexander Koenig, Bonn, Germany. Close ), Eritrea, and northern, central, and locally in eastern Ethiopia (1 Fry, C. H. (2000). Promerops gurneyi Verreaux. Gurney’s Sugarbird. In The Birds of Africa. Volume VI (C. H. Fry, S. Keith, and E. K. Urban, Editors), Academic Press, London, UK. pp. 336–338. Close , 18 Ash, J. S., and J. Atkins (2009). Birds of Ethiopia and Eritrea: An Atlas of Distribution. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ).

Identification

Described under Plumages.

Zosterops arabs Lorenz and Hellmayr, 1901, Ornithologische Monatsberichte 9:31.—Yeshbum. (19 von Lorenz, L., and C. E. Hellmayr (1901). Einige neue Arten aus dem südlichen Arabien. Ornithologische Monatsberichte 9:30–31. Close )

Distribution

Southwest Saudi Arabia, Yemen, and central and southern Oman (20 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission & Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Close , 21 Eriksen, J., and R. Victor (2013). Oman Bird List: the Official List of the Birds of the Sultanate of Oman. Seventh edition. Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman. Close ).

Identification

Like the nominate, but with fairly dark grayish-green upperparts.

Zosterops omoensis Neumann, 1904, Ornithologische Monatsberichte 12:162.—Senti Valley, between Uba and Gofa. (22 Neumann, O. (1904). Fünf neue Vögel von Nordost-Afrika. Ornithologische Monatsberichte 12:162–164. Close )

Distribution

Western Ethiopia (from Lake Tana south to the mouth of the River Omo) (18 Ash, J. S., and J. Atkins (2009). Birds of Ethiopia and Eritrea: An Atlas of Distribution. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ) and possibly adjacent northeast South Sudan (1 Fry, C. H. (2000). Promerops gurneyi Verreaux. Gurney’s Sugarbird. In The Birds of Africa. Volume VI (C. H. Fry, S. Keith, and E. K. Urban, Editors), Academic Press, London, UK. pp. 336–338. Close ).

Identification

Also like the nominate, but with pale yellowish-green upperparts, a brighter yellow throat, and gray underparts tinged buff.

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SUBSPECIES

Zosterops abyssinicus arabs Scientific name definitions

Distribution

SW Saudi Arabia, Yemen and S Oman.

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SUBSPECIES

Zosterops abyssinicus abyssinicus Scientific name definitions

Distribution

NE Sudan (region of Erkowit), Eritrea and N and C Ethiopia.

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SUBSPECIES

Zosterops abyssinicus omoensis Scientific name definitions

Distribution

W Ethiopia and possibly adjacent NE South Sudan.

Abyssinian White-eye forms a well-resolved clade with the Socotra White-eye (Zosterops socotranus), and these two are seemingly closely related to other ancient taxa confined to islands in the western Indian Ocean, namely Reunion Gray White-eye (Zosterops borbonicus) and Mauritius Gray White-eye (Zosterops mauritianus), although the precise relationship between these clades remains to be clarified (23 Day, J. J., F. C. Martins, J. A. Tobias, and D. J. Murrell (2020). Contrasting trajectories of morphological diversification on continents and islands in the Afrotropical white-eye radiation. Journal of Biogeography 47(10):2235–2247. Close , 3 Martins, F. C., S. C. Cox, M. Irestedt, R. P. Prys-Jones, and J. J. Day (2020). A comprehensive molecular phylogeny of Afrotropical white-eyes (Aves: Zosteropidae) highlights prior underestimation of mainland diversity and complex colonisation history. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 149:106843 Close ). The same phylogenetic study recovered the four samples of mainland (Somali) socotranus (see above) as sister to a clade containing various Gulf of Guinea taxa (e.g., Principe White-eye Zosterops ficedulinus and Annobon White-eye Zosterops griseovirescens) (3 Martins, F. C., S. C. Cox, M. Irestedt, R. P. Prys-Jones, and J. J. Day (2020). A comprehensive molecular phylogeny of Afrotropical white-eyes (Aves: Zosteropidae) highlights prior underestimation of mainland diversity and complex colonisation history. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 149:106843 Close ).

Species name often spelt abyssinica in the past (e.g., 10 Paynter, R. A., Editor (1967). Check-list of Birds of the World. A Continuation of the Work of James L. Peters. Volume 12. Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, MA, USA. Close ), but the genus Zosterops is masculine (24 David, N., and M. Gosselin (2002). The grammatical gender of avian genera. Bulletin of the British Ornithologists’ Club 122(4):257–282. Close ).

Nothing known.

Editor's Note: Additional distribution information for this taxon can be found in the 'Subspecies' article above. In the future we will develop a range-wide distribution article.

Broadleaf woodland and thorn-woodland, Juniperus (25 Davidson, P. (1996). Habitats and bird communities in southern Yemen and Socotra. Sandgrouse 17:102–129. Close , 26 Martins, R. P., C. G. Bradshaw, A. Brown, G. M. Kirwan, and R. F. Porter (1996). The status of passerines in southern Yemen and the records of the OSME survey in spring 1993. Sandgrouse 17:54–72. Close ), wooded mountain slopes and wadis, Anogeissus dhofarica-Commiphora habessinica deciduous woodland (25 Davidson, P. (1996). Habitats and bird communities in southern Yemen and Socotra. Sandgrouse 17:102–129. Close , 26 Martins, R. P., C. G. Bradshaw, A. Brown, G. M. Kirwan, and R. F. Porter (1996). The status of passerines in southern Yemen and the records of the OSME survey in spring 1993. Sandgrouse 17:54–72. Close ), savanna, forest edge, copses and thickets; common in parks and gardens, but in Ethiopia shuns Acacia bush, despite accepting Eucalyptus plantations (18 Ash, J. S., and J. Atkins (2009). Birds of Ethiopia and Eritrea: An Atlas of Distribution. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close , 20 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission & Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Close ); in Arabia, small numbers (of this species?) are found in coastal mangroves (27 Babbington, J., and P. Roberts (2014). Further records of Small Buttonquail Turnix sylvaticus and ‘mangrove white-eye’ Zosterops sp in southwest Saudi Arabia. Sandgrouse 36(1):50–52. Close , 8 Babbington, J., C. R. J. Boland, G. M. Kirwan, and M. Schweizer (2020). Morphological differences between ‘Mangrove White‑eye’ and montane Abyssinian White‑eye (Zosterops abyssinicus arabs) in Arabia despite no differentiation in mitochondrial DNA: incipient speciation via niche divergence? Journal of Ornithology 161(4):1051–1060. Close ). Mainly from sea level to 1,800 m; between 300 m and 3,000 m, usually at middle to higher elevations, on Arabian Peninsula (28 Cornwallis, L., and R. F. Porter (1982). Spring observations of the birds of North Yemen. Sandgrouse 4:1–36. Close , 20 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission & Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Close ), but not above 2,280 m in Ethiopia (18 Ash, J. S., and J. Atkins (2009). Birds of Ethiopia and Eritrea: An Atlas of Distribution. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ).

Mainly resident and sedentary, but in Oman occasionally wanders to drier areas not normally occupied by the species in December–April (29 Walker, F. J. (1981). Notes on the birds of Dhofar, Oman. Sandgrouse 2:56–85. Close , 20 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission & Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Close ).

Small insects; also fruits, seeds of an unidentified herb, Ficus, Acacia, and Olea chrysophylla, and probably nectar of Acanthus arboreus, Cordia abyssinica, Aloe sabaea, and cultivated Hibiscus (30 Brooks, D. J. (1987). Feeding observations on birds in North Yemen. Sandgrouse 9:115–120. Close , 20 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission & Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Close ); in Yemen, even reported visiting a bird table and taking bread crumbs (20 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission & Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Close ). Forages at flowers, e.g. Acanthus arboreus, whereby forehead often dusted with pollen (31 Harvey, D. (1993). "Cinnamon-browed" white-eyes in Sana'a, Yemen. Bulletin of the Ornithological Society of the Middle East 30:28–29. Close ). Forages in flocks of 10–30 individuals, especially in non-breeding season, working through canopy of tall bushes (31 Harvey, D. (1993). "Cinnamon-browed" white-eyes in Sana'a, Yemen. Bulletin of the Ornithological Society of the Middle East 30:28–29. Close ). Occasionally joins other species while foraging, e.g., Brown Woodland-Warbler (Phylloscopus umbrovirens) (20 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission & Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Close ).

The song in Arabia is described as being somewhat machine-like or a more insect-like buzzing, seeming rather strained, with each phrase lasting ca. 2 seconds, frequently with a very slight terminal flourish as a result of the last note being doubled or tripled (7 Shirihai, H., and L. Svensson (2018). Handbook of Western Palearctic Birds. Volume 2. Passerines: Flycatchers to Buntings. Bloomsbury, London, UK. Close ); these authors suggested that the effect might have a slight resemblance to a Corn Bunting (Emberiza calandra) for European observers. Buzzing and twittering call notes given by foraging groups, also plaintive calls described as teeyu, tew, and tyew-tip, and a sharper sibilant pseeyip (1 Fry, C. H. (2000). Promerops gurneyi Verreaux. Gurney’s Sugarbird. In The Birds of Africa. Volume VI (C. H. Fry, S. Keith, and E. K. Urban, Editors), Academic Press, London, UK. pp. 336–338. Close , 7 Shirihai, H., and L. Svensson (2018). Handbook of Western Palearctic Birds. Volume 2. Passerines: Flycatchers to Buntings. Bloomsbury, London, UK. Close ), heard near-continually from flocks. Subspecies arabs occasionally gives a fine purring call reminiscent of that of Snow Bunting (Plectrophenax nivalis), and a short, deep low waouw (32 Hollom, P. A. D., R. F. Porter, S. Christensen, and I. Willis (1988). Birds of the Middle East and North Africa. T. & A. D. Poyser, Calton, UK. Close , 6 Porter, R., and S. Aspinall (2010). Birds of the Middle East. Second edition. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ).

February, May, and June in Ethiopia (33 Urban, E. K., and L. H. Brown (1971). A Checklist of the Birds of Ethiopia. Haile Sellassie I University Press, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Close , 18 Ash, J. S., and J. Atkins (2009). Birds of Ethiopia and Eritrea: An Atlas of Distribution. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ), March and July in Sudan (17 Nikolaus, G. (1987). Distribution Atlas of Sudan’s Birds with Notes on Habitat and Status. Bonner Zoologische Monographien 25. Zoologisches Forschungsinstitut und Museum Alexander Koenig, Bonn, Germany. Close ), mainly May–September in southwest Saudi Arabia and western Yemen (although recently fledged young in latter in mid November and display in late November, suggest season may be even more protracted) (34 Brooks, D. J., M. I. Evans, R. P. Martins, and R. F. Porter (1987). The status of birds in North Yemen and the records of the OSME Expedition in autumn 1985. Sandgrouse 9:4–66. Close ), and March–July in eastern Yemen (20 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission & Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Close ) and southwest Oman (29 Walker, F. J. (1981). Notes on the birds of Dhofar, Oman. Sandgrouse 2:56–85. Close ). Most data from Arabian Peninsula (subspecies arabs) (20 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission & Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Close ); in contrast, virtually all of the information listed under this species in Fry et al. (1 Fry, C. H. (2000). Promerops gurneyi Verreaux. Gurney’s Sugarbird. In The Birds of Africa. Volume VI (C. H. Fry, S. Keith, and E. K. Urban, Editors), Academic Press, London, UK. pp. 336–338. Close ) pertains to Pale White-eye (Zosterops flavilateralis). Monogamous and a solitary nester (1 Fry, C. H. (2000). Promerops gurneyi Verreaux. Gurney’s Sugarbird. In The Birds of Africa. Volume VI (C. H. Fry, S. Keith, and E. K. Urban, Editors), Academic Press, London, UK. pp. 336–338. Close ); adults may feed each other as part of courtship display (20 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission & Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Close ). Nest is built by both sexes, a small open cup or hammock of fine grasses, string and cotton threads, cemented with spider web, lined with hair, and sometimes decorated externally with lichens, slung in a two- or three-way twig fork, or between parallel petioles 1.8–4.0 m up in bush or tree (including Juniperus, Acacia, and once an exotic pine), often in the outer branches (20 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission & Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Close ). Clutch 2–3 eggs, laid at one-day intervals, pale blue, size unrecorded (20 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission & Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Close ). Incubation of eggs and feeding of chicks by both parents; period unknown, as is nestling period; fledglings dependent on parents for several days after leaving the nest (35 Phillips, N. R. (1982). Observation on the birds of North Yemen in 1979. Sandgrouse 4:37–59. Close , 1 Fry, C. H. (2000). Promerops gurneyi Verreaux. Gurney’s Sugarbird. In The Birds of Africa. Volume VI (C. H. Fry, S. Keith, and E. K. Urban, Editors), Academic Press, London, UK. pp. 336–338. Close , 20 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission & Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Close ).

Not globally threatened (Least Concern), but note that this status is based on an evaluation against IUCN criteria which also includes Socotran birds (here treated as a separate species, Socotra White-eye Zosterops socotranus). Common to very common throughout most of its range (1 Fry, C. H. (2000). Promerops gurneyi Verreaux. Gurney’s Sugarbird. In The Birds of Africa. Volume VI (C. H. Fry, S. Keith, and E. K. Urban, Editors), Academic Press, London, UK. pp. 336–338. Close , 20 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission & Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Close ), but the mangove population in southwest Saudi Arabia is potentially very small, being apparently absent even from patches of apparently suitable mature mangrove; in any case there is less than 51 km² of mangrove habitat on the entire Red Sea coast of Saudi Arabia, with the most extensive patches at al-Wajh, al-Lith (both well north of the known range of the ‘Mangrove White-eye’) and on the Farasan Islands, but it might yet be found in neighboring Yemen (8 Babbington, J., C. R. J. Boland, G. M. Kirwan, and M. Schweizer (2020). Morphological differences between ‘Mangrove White‑eye’ and montane Abyssinian White‑eye (Zosterops abyssinicus arabs) in Arabia despite no differentiation in mitochondrial DNA: incipient speciation via niche divergence? Journal of Ornithology 161(4):1051–1060. Close ). Occurs in several protected areas, e.g., Rayda Reserve (southwest Saudi Arabia), where some 500 pairs are estimated to occur within its 1,200 ha (20 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission & Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Close ). The overall population estimate for Arabia is of 600,000 pairs (subspecies arabs) (20 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission & Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Close ).