Black-headed Bunting Emberiza melanocephala Scientific name definitions

15·5–17·5 cm; 23–33 g. Fairly large bunting with rather long bill, lacking white in outer tail. Male breeding is distinctive, with head black, side of neck and throat bright yellow ; nape and upperparts, ­including lesser upperwing-coverts, reddish-brown to bright chestnut; tail  feathers black-brown, outer pair narrowly edged buff-brown; median and greater upperwing-coverts brown with pale buffish edges (forming two wing­bars), flight-feathers and tertials black-brown with narrow pale buffish edges; bright yellow below , side of breast more rufous, occasionally with some rufous tinge on flanks; iris dark brown; bill rather long, lead-blue, often duskier on culmen; legs deep dusky pinkish. Male non-breeding (fresh plumage) is like breeding male, but black head feathers have sandy fringes, and colour of upperparts obscured by greyish-brown feather fringes. First-winter male has greyish crown streaked dark, supercilium, lores, side of neck and throat pale buff, ear-coverts, nape and most of upperparts greyish-brown and all faintly streaked, uppertail-coverts and lesser upperwing-coverts greyish-brown, breast tinged pinkish-buff, especially at side, belly paler with some yellowish wash, undertail-coverts pale yellow; very similar to E. bruniceps in similar plumage (often not separable in the field). Female breeding is similar to first-winter male, but paler and greyer; some have rufous tones on upperparts  or side of breast as on male breeding. Female non-breeding is rather similar to breeding, thus similar also to first-winter male, but sometimes with yellow on throat, breast, belly and/or undertail-coverts; very similar to corresponding plumage of E. bruniceps, but forehead and crown on average more streaked (never unstreaked), and rump less yellow, also can appear shorter-tailed, larger-billed, with longer primary projection and more yellow below. First-winter female is virtually indistinguishable from first-winter male. Juvenile is rather similar to female breeding, but feathers on forehead, crown, neck, mantle and back brown with distinct buff edges, rump lacks obvious yellow or rufous (normally has a few tiny spots), chin to belly whitish, hint of a band across chest formed by dark brown shaft streaks, side of chest, side of belly and flanks on average more buffish-tinged.

• Black-headed x Red-headed Bunting (hybrid) Emberiza melanocephala x bruniceps

SE Europe from Italy and Balkans E to Black Sea coast, from E Ukraine (E of R Dnieper) and SW Russia E to NW Caspian region and S to N Caucasus region (absent from Greater Caucasus) and, in S, from Aegean islands and Turkey E to E Georgia, Azerbaijan and NE & SW Iran (in S locally E to Baluchistan and possibly adjacent Pakistan (1 Rasmussen, P. C., and J. C. Anderton (2012). Birds of South Asia: the Ripley Guide. Volumes 1 and 2. Second edition. National Museum of Natural History, Washington, D.C., USA, Smithsonian Institution, Michigan State University, Ann Arbor, MI, USA, and Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Close ) ) and S to Israel, W Jordan and N Iraq. Winters in W India.

Breeds in open areas  with dispersed trees, shrubs and hedges, from sea-level locally to c. 2000 m, exceptionally to 2900 m. Common in olive groves, orchards and vineyards, and in thickets or groves along field borders , in open forests with undergrowth, in open fields with thorny scrub, and on slopes of mountains with dense vegetation (for nest-sites) and vantage points (for songposts). Also, less commonly, in forested areas, maquis, wooded steppes and thickets, where it favours dense and tall bushy vegetation. Seems to avoid damp localities. In winter found on cultivated fields, also in scrub-jungle, roosting in thorn-scrub and thickets; mainly in plains.

Migratory; winters in W India, mainly in plains in Rajasthan, Gujarat , Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and N Karnataka. Seems to be rather scarce visitor in Nepal, mostly in E lowlands. Leaves breeding grounds late Jul and Aug; flies on rather direct SE heading, apparently at good speed, as it can arrive in wintering areas in India as early as Aug–Sept. Vacates winter quarters during Mar–Apr; regular in low numbers on passage across Arabia . Regular spring vagrant in W Europe (records N & W to Iceland, Fennoscandia, Ireland, Britain and Spain) and N Africa (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia); recorded also in C Asia (L Baikal area). Also, recorded recently with degree of regularly in E Asia, mainly offshore Korea and S Japan and mainland E China (Fujian), as well as Thailand, Laos, Hong Kong  , Borneo and the Philippines (2 Jensen, A. E., T. H. Fisher, and R. O. Hutchinson (2015). Notable new bird records from the Philippines. Forktail 31:24–36. Close ).

During breeding season mostly invertebrates, also seeds  and other plant material. Recorded invertebrates in diet include larval mayflies (Ephemeroptera), crickets (Orthoptera), earwigs (Dermaptera), cicadas (Cicadidae), larval Lepidoptera and Diptera, ants (Formicidae), beetles (Coleoptera) and hartvestmen (Opiliones). Among plant material recorded are seeds of bugloss (Anchusa) and Salvadora, and of grasses (Poaceae) including millet (Pennisetum, Panicum), wheat (Triticum), maize (Zea), Sorghum and rice (Oryza). Normally forages on the ground or in bushes or low in trees. Occurs singly and in pairs when breeding; postbreeding flocks in Israel can number a few dozen individuals to hundreds; on spring migration, flocks mostly of 10–30 (50) birds; in winter found in medium-sized to large flocks, sometimes numbering several thousand, often mixed with E. bruniceps; the two roost together in sometimes huge numbers, frequently associated with other passerines.

Song , normally from vantage point such as treetop, wire or rock, also in flight, usually a short series of “zrt” notes followed by a slightly accelerating phrase at low pitch, “zrit zrit srutt srutt-srutt sutteri-sutt sutterrih” or “zrt zrt priiprii chi-chiwu-chiwu ze-triiiuurr”. On breeding grounds calls rather varied, e.g. “chiip”, “chleep” or “chlip” like those of House Sparrow (Passer domesticus), also “dzuu” or “prriu” like some notes of Eurasian Bullfinch (Pyrrhula pyrrhula); flight call “chuhp” like that of E. citrinella, also sharp “tsik” similar to that of E. hortulana. All vocalizations very similar to those of E. bruniceps, and normally very difficult or impossible to distinguish by human ear, being only a little less thin or less metallic than latter’s.

Season starts mid-May and at peak during Jun; normally single-brooded, possibly sometimes two broods. Male performs song flight, flying on level course with shallow wingbeats and dangling legs, less often ascending at angle and parachuting down on spread wings. Territory size c. 17 ha per pair, and mean distance of 230 m between close territories. Nest built by female, a loosely constructed cup of grass and dead leaves, with lining of finer grass, rootlets, stems and hair, often brightly coloured flowerheads on outside of structure, located normally below 2 m under thorny shrub, low bush or vine, sometimes up to 3 m above ground in low tree; in study in Italy, preference for cardoon (Cynara cardunculus), common golden thistle (Scolymus hispanicus) and milk thistle (Silybum marianum) noted. Clutch 4–5 eggs, rarely 6 or 7, pale greenish-blue, finely spotted with dull reddish-brown; incubation by female, 10–16 days, usually 13–14 days; role of male in brood-tending unclear, in some studies reported as contribution very little or nothing, in others male fed chicks , nestling period 14–16 days; juveniles remained in vicinity of nest, less than 100 m from it, for 3–4 days before dispersing. Losses of clutches due mostly to adverse weather (storms) and the activity of snail-pickers.

Not globally threatened (Least Concern). Common to locally very common. Breeding population of Europe estimated at 2,800,000–9,300,000 pairs. Densities can be locally very high, reaching concentrations of 137 pairs/km², but usually 30–50 pairs/km² in areas of optimal habitat; in an Italian study, average of 1·2 males/10 ha, with an excess of males reported. Has bred in France and Switzerland. Regularity of records of supposed vagrants in E & SE Asia has led to speculation that this species may have an additional, as yet undiscovered breeding population in that part of world; further fieldwork required. Global population thought to be declining because of changes in agricultural practices and removal of hedges and shrubs in parts of its range. Conversion of richly structured fields to intensive agriculture, creating larger fields and at same time extending use of pesticides, has been particularly evident in Greece, where olive groves replaced by maize fields, and in Slovenia, where corn fields replaced by commercial fruit-growing. Large decrease in breeding numbers between 1970 and 1990, after which a slight increase noted during 1990–2000, mainly in Turkey, the species’ stronghold; this small increase has not yet brought population back to its previous levels.