Black Kite Milvus migrans Scientific name definitions

The Black Kite is widespread throughout Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia, and is one of the most common raptors in many areas where it occurs. The species exhibits extensive geographic variation, and may actually represent multiple species, as it appears that the Red Kite (Milvus milvus) may be more closely related to some groups of Black Kite than other groups of Black Kite (1 Scheider, J., Wink, M., Stubbe, M., Hille, S., and W. Wiltschko. Phylogenetic relationships of the Black Kite Milvus migrans. Raptors Worldwide: 467-472 Close , 2 Johnson, J.A., Watson, R.T. and Mindell, D.P. (2005). Prioritizing species conservation: does the Cape Verde Kite exist? Proc. Royal Soc. London (Ser. B Biol. Sci.). 272(1570): 1365-1371. Close ). Some populations of Black Kite are highly migratory, with incredible numbers recorded migrating past Gibraltar between Europe and Africa. Black Kite feeds on a wide variety of prey items, including small mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, and invertebrates, and is very closely associated with humans in many places, where it often feeds at garbage dumps and will also steal food from markets. Due to their extensive distribution, they have a highly variable breeding season. They often nest in trees, with females doing most of the incubation, while males bring most of the food. Because of their adaptability to human modified landscapes, they face no immediate conservation concerns, and in many places their populations have increased dramatically.

44–66 cm; male 630–928 g, female 750–1,080 g (3 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ); wingspan 120–153 cm (3 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Mostly reddish brown ; tail brown and only slightly forked. Juvenile generally paler and more heavily marked , with more contrasted pattern. Subspecies vary most notably in bill color; also in plumage and size. Subspecies <em>migrans</em> with black bill and tail fork 20–35 mm; <em>lineatus</em> is the largest subspecies, has black bill and is browner on crown and venter relative to nominate subspecies; formosanus very similar to lineatus but slightly smaller (3 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ); subspecies <em>govinda</em> is smaller than migrans and lineatus and intermediate in plumage color except for having more rufous in crown; subspecies affinis is smallest and is uniformly dark brown except on face and upperwings; subspecies <em>aegyptius</em> averages smaller than Eurasian birds, usually has yellow bill as adult, more rufous in belly, more obviously barred tail and tail fork 30–45 mm; subspecies <em>parasitus</em> smaller than aegyptius, more cinnamon-rufous on belly and always has yellow bill as adult.

Described as Falco migrans by Boddaert in 1783 [type locality = France]. The genus Milvus was established by de Lacépède in 1799.

Geographic variation complex and not fully understood. Birds from arid areas of North Africa and the Middle East tend to be brighter and redder than others, possibly due to environmental conditions (4 Forsman, D. (2016). Flight Identification of Raptors of Europe, North Africa and the Middle East. Bloomsbury, London, UK. Close ). Several subspecies are well-marked and are sometimes awarded separate species status (most notably lineatus and aegyptius), but intergradation between them suggests they are probably best kept as a single species. They are traditionally placed in three subspecies groups: the Black Kite group (migrans, govinda, affinis) from Europe, South Asia, and Australasia; the Black-eared Kite group (lineatus and formosanus) from East Asia; and the Yellow-billed Kite group (aegyptius and parasitus) from Egypt, southwestern Arabia, and Sub-Saharan Africa. However, molecular studies indicate a more complex situation (1 Scheider, J., Wink, M., Stubbe, M., Hille, S., and W. Wiltschko. Phylogenetic relationships of the Black Kite Milvus migrans. Raptors Worldwide: 467-472 Close , 2 Johnson, J.A., Watson, R.T. and Mindell, D.P. (2005). Prioritizing species conservation: does the Cape Verde Kite exist? Proc. Royal Soc. London (Ser. B Biol. Sci.). 272(1570): 1365-1371. Close , 5 Heneberg, P., Dolinay, M., Matušík, H., Pfeiffer, T., Nachtigall, W., Bizos, J., Šimčíková, D. and I. Literák (2016). Conservation of the Red Kite Milvus milvus (Aves: Accipitriformes) Is Not Affected by the Establishment of a Broad Hybrid Zone with the Black Kite Milvus migrans migrans in Central Europe. PLoS ONE 11(7): e0159202. Close ). Based on the limited evidence available, the Red Kite (Milvus milvus) is embedded within Milvus migrans as defined here, which has led to the recent trend of splitting the Yellow-billed Kite (Milvus aegyptius) (with parasitus) as a separate species (4 Forsman, D. (2016). Flight Identification of Raptors of Europe, North Africa and the Middle East. Bloomsbury, London, UK. Close , 6 Clark, W.S. and R. Davies (2018). African Raptors. Helm, London, UK. Close , 7 Gill, F., D. Donsker, and P. Rasmussen (Editors) (2021). IOC World Bird List (v11.1). Close ). Still, the Yellow-billed Kite is not monophyletic and falls into two clades: one from North Africa (including aegyptius and some parasitus) which is sister to all other Milvus kites, and one from Madagascar and Southern Africa (parasitus) which is sister to Milvus milvus (2 Johnson, J.A., Watson, R.T. and Mindell, D.P. (2005). Prioritizing species conservation: does the Cape Verde Kite exist? Proc. Royal Soc. London (Ser. B Biol. Sci.). 272(1570): 1365-1371. Close , 5 Heneberg, P., Dolinay, M., Matušík, H., Pfeiffer, T., Nachtigall, W., Bizos, J., Šimčíková, D. and I. Literák (2016). Conservation of the Red Kite Milvus milvus (Aves: Accipitriformes) Is Not Affected by the Establishment of a Broad Hybrid Zone with the Black Kite Milvus migrans migrans in Central Europe. PLoS ONE 11(7): e0159202. Close ). Both of these clades would have to be split to preserve monophyly in Milvus kites, but no morphological differences are known between them and this situation requires further study. On the other hand, it is unclear whether lineatus is monophyletic or not despite its marked morphological distinctiveness. A recent study could not discriminate it from govinda, although the sample size was small and some birds may have been misidentified (2 Johnson, J.A., Watson, R.T. and Mindell, D.P. (2005). Prioritizing species conservation: does the Cape Verde Kite exist? Proc. Royal Soc. London (Ser. B Biol. Sci.). 272(1570): 1365-1371. Close , 8 Andreyenkova, N. G., I. J. Starikov, M. Wink, I. V. Karyakin, O. V. Andreyenkov, and I. F. Zhimulev (2019). “The Problems of Genetic Support of Dividing the Black Kite (Milvus Migrans) into Subspecies.” Vavilov Journal of Genetics and Breeding 23 (2): 226–31. https://doi.org/10.18699/VJ19.486. Close ). In any case, it seems to fall within the "Black Kite" group as defined here. Moreover, it intergrades with migrans and govinda wherever they come into contact. M. m. affinis and M. m. migrans appear to be monophyletic based on the available evidence. M. m. affinis was first suggested to be highly distinct from other subspecies, but it was based on the genetic analysis of a single specimen (1 Scheider, J., Wink, M., Stubbe, M., Hille, S., and W. Wiltschko. Phylogenetic relationships of the Black Kite Milvus migrans. Raptors Worldwide: 467-472 Close ). Further research now places affinis sister to the govinda/lineatus clade, which is in turn sister to the nominate subspecies (2 Johnson, J.A., Watson, R.T. and Mindell, D.P. (2005). Prioritizing species conservation: does the Cape Verde Kite exist? Proc. Royal Soc. London (Ser. B Biol. Sci.). 272(1570): 1365-1371. Close ).

Within nominate migrans, birds from the Cape Verde are quite distinct, differing in morphometrics, possibly due to local adaptation to insular conditions (2 Johnson, J.A., Watson, R.T. and Mindell, D.P. (2005). Prioritizing species conservation: does the Cape Verde Kite exist? Proc. Royal Soc. London (Ser. B Biol. Sci.). 272(1570): 1365-1371. Close , 9 Hille, S. M. and Collar, N. J. (2009). The taxonomic and conservation status of Milvus kites in the Cape Verde archipelago: further (and final?) reflections. Bull. Brit. Orn. Club. 129(4): 217-221. Close ). They may be recognized as a separate subspecies, and some authors have attributed the name tenebrosus to these birds despite the fact that the type of this subspecies was collected in winter along the West African coast (3 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close , 10 Karyakin, Igor (2017). “Problem of Identification of Eurasian Subspecies of the Black Kite and Records of the Pariah Kite in Southern Siberia, Russia. Raptors Conservation, March, 49–67. https://doi.org/10.19074/1814-8654-2017-34-49-67. Close ). However, the genetic differences are small and may be the result of hybridization with Red Kite (Milvus milvus) (2 Johnson, J.A., Watson, R.T. and Mindell, D.P. (2005). Prioritizing species conservation: does the Cape Verde Kite exist? Proc. Royal Soc. London (Ser. B Biol. Sci.). 272(1570): 1365-1371. Close ).

The subspecies formosanus is barely distinct and may be better synonymized with lineatus. Other proposed subspecies include tenebrosus (Ghana), which is here subsumed within parasitus, and tianshanicus (Tien Shan), here included in lineatus. Birds from southwestern Arabia are sometimes referred as arabicus which is no longer recognized by most authorities. However, this population seems to differ morphologically to some extent from aegyptius and may deserve recognition (4 Forsman, D. (2016). Flight Identification of Raptors of Europe, North Africa and the Middle East. Bloomsbury, London, UK. Close ). The highly threatened Cape Verde population of nominate also seem to differ in morphology and genetics and may be a separate subspecies (9 Hille, S. M. and Collar, N. J. (2009). The taxonomic and conservation status of Milvus kites in the Cape Verde archipelago: further (and final?) reflections. Bull. Brit. Orn. Club. 129(4): 217-221. Close ).

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EBIRD GROUP (POLYTYPIC)

Black Kite (Black) Milvus migrans [migrans Group]

Available illustrations of subspecies in this group

• eBird map
• 2,521 photos
• 26 recordings

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SUBSPECIES

Milvus migrans migrans Scientific name definitions

Systematics History

Falco migrans Boddaert, 1783 [type locality = France]. Black Kite. Includes rufiventris Buturlin, 1908 (Turkmenistan) and reichenowi Erlanger, 1897 (Northwestern Africa). This subspecies intergrades freely with lineatus wherever they come into contact (4 Forsman, D. (2016). Flight Identification of Raptors of Europe, North Africa and the Middle East. Bloomsbury, London, UK. Close , 10 Karyakin, Igor (2017). “Problem of Identification of Eurasian Subspecies of the Black Kite and Records of the Pariah Kite in Southern Siberia, Russia. Raptors Conservation, March, 49–67. https://doi.org/10.19074/1814-8654-2017-34-49-67. Close ).

Distribution

Cape Verde Islands, northwestern Africa, and southern and central Europe east to southwestern Asia (to western Pakistan); winters mainly Africa south of the Sahara.

Identification Summary

Brown overall with fine black streaks, lower body sometimes tinged rufous. Gray head with diffuse mask behind eyes. Pale diagonals on upperwing. Subtle pale gray panel on underwing. Light iris; yellow feet. Tail fork 20–35 mm (3 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). There is much individual variation within this subspecies, with some birds being more rufous or darker brown than most others (10 Karyakin, Igor (2017). “Problem of Identification of Eurasian Subspecies of the Black Kite and Records of the Pariah Kite in Southern Siberia, Russia. Raptors Conservation, March, 49–67. https://doi.org/10.19074/1814-8654-2017-34-49-67. Close ).

Birds from northwestern Africa have been separated as reichenowi based on their smaller size, but this subspecies is no longer recognized. Some birds in the Middle East are very brightly colored, possibly due to environmental conditions, and thus look similar to Red Kite (4 Forsman, D. (2016). Flight Identification of Raptors of Europe, North Africa and the Middle East. Bloomsbury, London, UK. Close ). These birds are provisionally assumed to be a local rufous morph of nominate.

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SUBSPECIES

Milvus migrans govinda Scientific name definitions

Systematics History

Milvus govinda Sykes, 1832 [type locality = Dukhun]. (Small) Indian Kite. Johnson et al. (2 Johnson, J.A., Watson, R.T. and Mindell, D.P. (2005). Prioritizing species conservation: does the Cape Verde Kite exist? Proc. Royal Soc. London (Ser. B Biol. Sci.). 272(1570): 1365-1371. Close ) failed to distinguish govinda from lineatus in their genetic analysis. However, Andreyenkova et al. (8 Andreyenkova, N. G., I. J. Starikov, M. Wink, I. V. Karyakin, O. V. Andreyenkov, and I. F. Zhimulev (2019). “The Problems of Genetic Support of Dividing the Black Kite (Milvus Migrans) into Subspecies.” Vavilov Journal of Genetics and Breeding 23 (2): 226–31. https://doi.org/10.18699/VJ19.486. Close ) argued that all the samples were collected during the wintering period, when lineatus is also present in the same region. They concluded that these results may be due to incorrect labeling of wintering lineatus. Another study found lineatus closely related to, but distinct from govinda (5 Heneberg, P., Dolinay, M., Matušík, H., Pfeiffer, T., Nachtigall, W., Bizos, J., Šimčíková, D. and I. Literák (2016). Conservation of the Red Kite Milvus milvus (Aves: Accipitriformes) Is Not Affected by the Establishment of a Broad Hybrid Zone with the Black Kite Milvus migrans migrans in Central Europe. PLoS ONE 11(7): e0159202. Close ).

Distribution

Eastern Pakistan east through India and Sri Lanka to southern China (Yunnan), Indochina, and Malay Peninsula.

Identification Summary

Smaller than migrans and lineatus, somewhat intermediate in plumage. There is no sexual dimorphism in size for this subspecies (10 Karyakin, Igor (2017). “Problem of Identification of Eurasian Subspecies of the Black Kite and Records of the Pariah Kite in Southern Siberia, Russia. Raptors Conservation, March, 49–67. https://doi.org/10.19074/1814-8654-2017-34-49-67. Close ). Wings and tail shorter, with a deeper fork (3 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Crown more rufous, plumage more uniformly brown. Ear coverts do not contrast as much as in lineatus. The pale gray panel on the underwing is smaller and more barred compared to lineatus (11 Decandido, Robert, Tulsi Subedi, Martti Siponen, Kaset Sutasha, Andrew Pierce, Chukiat Nualsri, and Philip D Round (2013). “Flight Identification of Milvus migrans lineatus ‘Black-Eared’ Kite and Milvus migrans govinda ‘Pariah’ Kite in Nepal and Thailand.” BirdingASIA 20: 32–36. Close ). Bare parts are bright yellow. In juvenile plumage, the white streaks on the body are thinner than on juvenile lineatus (11 Decandido, Robert, Tulsi Subedi, Martti Siponen, Kaset Sutasha, Andrew Pierce, Chukiat Nualsri, and Philip D Round (2013). “Flight Identification of Milvus migrans lineatus ‘Black-Eared’ Kite and Milvus migrans govinda ‘Pariah’ Kite in Nepal and Thailand.” BirdingASIA 20: 32–36. Close ). This subspecies is also less variable in plumage than migrans and lineatus (11 Decandido, Robert, Tulsi Subedi, Martti Siponen, Kaset Sutasha, Andrew Pierce, Chukiat Nualsri, and Philip D Round (2013). “Flight Identification of Milvus migrans lineatus ‘Black-Eared’ Kite and Milvus migrans govinda ‘Pariah’ Kite in Nepal and Thailand.” BirdingASIA 20: 32–36. Close , 10 Karyakin, Igor (2017). “Problem of Identification of Eurasian Subspecies of the Black Kite and Records of the Pariah Kite in Southern Siberia, Russia. Raptors Conservation, March, 49–67. https://doi.org/10.19074/1814-8654-2017-34-49-67. Close ).

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SUBSPECIES

Milvus migrans affinis Scientific name definitions

Systematics History

Milvus affinis Gould, 1838 [type locality = Australia]. Fork-tailed Kite. This subspecies is most similar to govinda in morphology. Preliminary analyses, including short sequences from govinda collected in summer (when lineatus has left India) found a close relationship between govinda and affinis (8 Andreyenkova, N. G., I. J. Starikov, M. Wink, I. V. Karyakin, O. V. Andreyenkov, and I. F. Zhimulev (2019). “The Problems of Genetic Support of Dividing the Black Kite (Milvus Migrans) into Subspecies.” Vavilov Journal of Genetics and Breeding 23 (2): 226–31. https://doi.org/10.18699/VJ19.486. Close ). Samples from affinis formed a clade distinct from migrans and lineatus in all recent genetic analyses (2 Johnson, J.A., Watson, R.T. and Mindell, D.P. (2005). Prioritizing species conservation: does the Cape Verde Kite exist? Proc. Royal Soc. London (Ser. B Biol. Sci.). 272(1570): 1365-1371. Close , 5 Heneberg, P., Dolinay, M., Matušík, H., Pfeiffer, T., Nachtigall, W., Bizos, J., Šimčíková, D. and I. Literák (2016). Conservation of the Red Kite Milvus milvus (Aves: Accipitriformes) Is Not Affected by the Establishment of a Broad Hybrid Zone with the Black Kite Milvus migrans migrans in Central Europe. PLoS ONE 11(7): e0159202. Close ).

Distribution

Sulawesi, Moluccas (Buru) and Lesser Sundas (east to Timor); eastern New Guinea; northern Australia south (in east) to Victoria.

Identification Summary

Smallest subspecies, hardly overlapping with any other (3 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Rather uniformly dark brown except for pale face, also clear pale diagonal on upperwing. No internal variation has been detected in this subspecies (12 Amadon, D., and H. T. Condon (1954). Taxonomic notes on Australian hawks. Records of the South Australian Museum 11:189–246 Close ).

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EBIRD GROUP (POLYTYPIC)

Black Kite (Black-eared) Milvus migrans lineatus/formosanus

Available illustrations of subspecies in this group

• eBird map
• 2,973 photos
• 10 recordings

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SUBSPECIES

Milvus migrans lineatus Scientific name definitions

Systematics History

Haliaetus lineatus Gray, 1831 [type locality = China]. Black-eared Kite. Intergrades with nominate are found in a wide area extending across Eastern Europe and Western Asia (10 Karyakin, Igor (2017). “Problem of Identification of Eurasian Subspecies of the Black Kite and Records of the Pariah Kite in Southern Siberia, Russia. Raptors Conservation, March, 49–67. https://doi.org/10.19074/1814-8654-2017-34-49-67. Close ). They show almost all intermediate phenotypes between the two subspecies. This populations is sometimes called intermedius and is said to be "huge and self-sustainable" (4 Forsman, D. (2016). Flight Identification of Raptors of Europe, North Africa and the Middle East. Bloomsbury, London, UK. Close ).

Distribution

Ural Mountains east through Siberia to Amurland and Japan, south to northern India, northern Myanmar, northern China, and Ryukyu Islands; winters south to southern Iraq, southern India, and southeastern Asia.

Identification Summary

Largest subspecies, with an almost eagle-like structure. Compared to nominate, wings are larger and show a different wing-formula. Browner crown and underbody; contrasting creamy-buff belly and undertail. Pale lores and chin give a pale-faced look while dark ear-coverts form a "mask." Black bill appears long and heavy. Large white primary patch in all plumages. Bare parts are dull bluish or greenish as opposed to the bright yellow of other subspecies. There is also much individual variation within this subspecies, with some birds being redder (although less than rufous morph migrans) and others being darker than usual (11 Decandido, Robert, Tulsi Subedi, Martti Siponen, Kaset Sutasha, Andrew Pierce, Chukiat Nualsri, and Philip D Round (2013). “Flight Identification of Milvus migrans lineatus ‘Black-Eared’ Kite and Milvus migrans govinda ‘Pariah’ Kite in Nepal and Thailand.” BirdingASIA 20: 32–36. Close , 10 Karyakin, Igor (2017). “Problem of Identification of Eurasian Subspecies of the Black Kite and Records of the Pariah Kite in Southern Siberia, Russia. Raptors Conservation, March, 49–67. https://doi.org/10.19074/1814-8654-2017-34-49-67. Close ). The typical characteristics of this subspecies (black ear coverts, bluish bare parts, white wing panels) tend to be more strongly expressed in the eastern part of its range (10 Karyakin, Igor (2017). “Problem of Identification of Eurasian Subspecies of the Black Kite and Records of the Pariah Kite in Southern Siberia, Russia. Raptors Conservation, March, 49–67. https://doi.org/10.19074/1814-8654-2017-34-49-67. Close ).

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SUBSPECIES

Milvus migrans formosanus Scientific name definitions

Systematics History

Milvus lineatus formosanus Kuroda, 1920 [type locality = "Gyochi, Nanto District, Central Formosa"]. Taiwan Kite. Sometimes considered to be the result of an intergrade zone between govinda and lineatus; barely distinguishable from latter (8 Andreyenkova, N. G., I. J. Starikov, M. Wink, I. V. Karyakin, O. V. Andreyenkov, and I. F. Zhimulev (2019). “The Problems of Genetic Support of Dividing the Black Kite (Milvus Migrans) into Subspecies.” Vavilov Journal of Genetics and Breeding 23 (2): 226–31. https://doi.org/10.18699/VJ19.486. Close ).

Distribution

Taiwan and Hainan (southern China).

Identification Summary

Similar to lineatus but smaller. The plumage is somewhat intermediate between lineatus and govinda.

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EBIRD GROUP (POLYTYPIC)

Black Kite (Yellow-billed) Milvus migrans aegyptius/parasitus

Available illustrations of subspecies in this group

• eBird map
• 3,061 photos
• 23 recordings

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SUBSPECIES

Milvus migrans aegyptius Scientific name definitions

Systematics History

Falco aegyptius Gmelin, 1788 [type locality = Egypt]. Yellow-billed Kite. Frequently split as Milvus aegyptius (including parasitus).

Distribution

Egypt, southwestern Arabia, and coastal East Africa south to Kenya.

Identification Summary

Averages smaller than migrans, except for North African population of latter (formerly separated as reichenowi). Narrower wings and more pointed wingtips (different wing-formula). Slimmer with more deeply forked tail (tail fork: 30–45 mm) (3 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). More uniformly brown head and neck, more rufous underbody, and distinctly barred tail. Dark iris and yellow feet. Bill usually all-yellow, but some adults with black tip (3 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close , 4 Forsman, D. (2016). Flight Identification of Raptors of Europe, North Africa and the Middle East. Bloomsbury, London, UK. Close , 6 Clark, W.S. and R. Davies (2018). African Raptors. Helm, London, UK. Close ). Different molt timing compared to nominate.

Birds from southern Arabia and North Somalia are still smaller, with bill varying from yellow to blackish (3 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). They show a brighter plumage, lighter iris, and tend to have longer fifth primaries (4 Forsman, D. (2016). Flight Identification of Raptors of Europe, North Africa and the Middle East. Bloomsbury, London, UK. Close ). Some birds in Ethiopia also tend to be more rufous than those further south (4 Forsman, D. (2016). Flight Identification of Raptors of Europe, North Africa and the Middle East. Bloomsbury, London, UK. Close ).

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SUBSPECIES

Milvus migrans parasitus Scientific name definitions

Systematics History

Falco parasitus Daudin, 1800 [type locality = Africa]. Proposed subspecies tenebrosus Grant and Mackworth-Praed, 1933 (West Africa) is a synonym. This subspecies is polyphyletic according to recent molecular studies (2 Johnson, J.A., Watson, R.T. and Mindell, D.P. (2005). Prioritizing species conservation: does the Cape Verde Kite exist? Proc. Royal Soc. London (Ser. B Biol. Sci.). 272(1570): 1365-1371. Close , 5 Heneberg, P., Dolinay, M., Matušík, H., Pfeiffer, T., Nachtigall, W., Bizos, J., Šimčíková, D. and I. Literák (2016). Conservation of the Red Kite Milvus milvus (Aves: Accipitriformes) Is Not Affected by the Establishment of a Broad Hybrid Zone with the Black Kite Milvus migrans migrans in Central Europe. PLoS ONE 11(7): e0159202. Close ). It includes two distinct clades which are not sisters: one in equatorial Africa and southern Arabian Peninsula (which also includes aegyptius), and the other in southern Africa and Madagascar, which is more closely related to the Red Kite (Milvus milvus). Whether morphological differences exist between them or not remains to be investigated.

Distribution

Africa south of Sahara, Comoro Islands, and Madagascar.

Identification Summary

Smaller than aegyptius; tail fork 30–46 mm (3 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). More cinnamon-rufous below, averaging duller than aegyptius (3 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ,6 Clark, W.S. and R. Davies (2018). African Raptors. Helm, London, UK. Close ). Adult bill always yellow. Darker iris than aegyptius.

The Black Kite is closely related to the Red Kite (Milvus milvus). The latter species is even embedded within Black Kite as defined here, based on phylogenetic analyses of genetic data, possibly due to incomplete lineage sorting (13 Schreiber, A., Stubbe, M. and A. Stubbe (2000). Red Kite (Milvus milvus) and Black Kite (M. migrans): minute genetic interspecies distance of two raptors breeding in a mixed community (Falconiformes: Accipitridae). Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 69:351-365. Close , 1 Scheider, J., Wink, M., Stubbe, M., Hille, S., and W. Wiltschko. Phylogenetic relationships of the Black Kite Milvus migrans. Raptors Worldwide: 467-472 Close , 2 Johnson, J.A., Watson, R.T. and Mindell, D.P. (2005). Prioritizing species conservation: does the Cape Verde Kite exist? Proc. Royal Soc. London (Ser. B Biol. Sci.). 272(1570): 1365-1371. Close ). The genus Milvus currently includes two species, but its internal taxonomy is still confused and other species may be recognized in a near future. Milvus kites are closely related to Haliastur kites, but not to other genera of kites as formerly thought (e.g. Elanus, Harpagus, Ictinia) (14 Lerner, H. R. L., and D. P. Mindell (2005). Phylogeny of eagles, Old World vultures, and other Accipitridae based on nuclear and mitochondrial DNA. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 37:327–346. Close , 15 Griffiths, C. S., G. F. Barrowclough, J. G. Groth, and L. A. Mertz (2007). Phylogeny, diversity, and classification of the Accipitridae based on DNA sequences of the RAG-1 exon. Journal of Avian Biology 38(5):587–602. Close , 16 Ong, P. S., A. U. Luczon, J. P. Quilang, A. M. T. Sumaya, J. C. Ibañez, D. J. Salvador, and I. K. C. Fontanilla (2011). DNA barcodes of Philippine accipitrids. Molecular Ecology Resources 11(2):245–254. Close , 17 Barrowclough, G. F., J. G. Groth, J. E. Lai, and S. M. Tsang (2014). The phylogenetic relationships of the endemic genera of Australo-Papuan hawks. Journal of Raptor Research 48(1):36–43. Close , 18 Nagy, J., and J. Tökölyi (2014). Phylogeny, historical biogeography and the evolution of migration in accipitrid birds of prey (Aves: Accipitriformes). Ornis Hungarica 22:15–35. Close , 19 Mindell, D. P., J. Fuchs, and J. A. Johnson (2018). Phylogeny, taxonomy, and geographic diversity of diurnal raptors: Falconiformes, Accipitriformes, and Cathartiformes. In Birds of Prey (J. Sarasola, J. Grande and J. Negro, Editors), Springer, Cham, Switzerland. pp. 3–32. Close ). These two genera are placed by most authors with Haliaeetus (sea-eagles) in the subfamily Haliaeetinae, a group most closely related to hawks of the Buteoninae subfamily (20 Wink, M., P. Heidrich, and C. Fentzloff (1996). A mtDNA phylogeny of sea eagles (genus Haliaeetus) based on nucleotide sequences of the cytochrome b-gene. Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 24(7):783–791. Close , 15 Griffiths, C. S., G. F. Barrowclough, J. G. Groth, and L. A. Mertz (2007). Phylogeny, diversity, and classification of the Accipitridae based on DNA sequences of the RAG-1 exon. Journal of Avian Biology 38(5):587–602. Close , 16 Ong, P. S., A. U. Luczon, J. P. Quilang, A. M. T. Sumaya, J. C. Ibañez, D. J. Salvador, and I. K. C. Fontanilla (2011). DNA barcodes of Philippine accipitrids. Molecular Ecology Resources 11(2):245–254. Close , 17 Barrowclough, G. F., J. G. Groth, J. E. Lai, and S. M. Tsang (2014). The phylogenetic relationships of the endemic genera of Australo-Papuan hawks. Journal of Raptor Research 48(1):36–43. Close , 18 Nagy, J., and J. Tökölyi (2014). Phylogeny, historical biogeography and the evolution of migration in accipitrid birds of prey (Aves: Accipitriformes). Ornis Hungarica 22:15–35. Close ); these two subfamilies are sometimes combined into a larger more inclusive Buteoninae (19 Mindell, D. P., J. Fuchs, and J. A. Johnson (2018). Phylogeny, taxonomy, and geographic diversity of diurnal raptors: Falconiformes, Accipitriformes, and Cathartiformes. In Birds of Prey (J. Sarasola, J. Grande and J. Negro, Editors), Springer, Cham, Switzerland. pp. 3–32. Close ). Milvine kites (Milvus and Haliastur) and sea-eagles share many morphological and ecological characteristics, notably their affinity to humid areas. They probably split from their closest relatives between 9.8 and 15.7 mya (18 Nagy, J., and J. Tökölyi (2014). Phylogeny, historical biogeography and the evolution of migration in accipitrid birds of prey (Aves: Accipitriformes). Ornis Hungarica 22:15–35. Close ).

Milvus migrans and Milvus milvus regularly hybridize in the wild (5 Heneberg, P., Dolinay, M., Matušík, H., Pfeiffer, T., Nachtigall, W., Bizos, J., Šimčíková, D. and I. Literák (2016). Conservation of the Red Kite Milvus milvus (Aves: Accipitriformes) Is Not Affected by the Establishment of a Broad Hybrid Zone with the Black Kite Milvus migrans migrans in Central Europe. PLoS ONE 11(7): e0159202. Close ). A more surprising case of hybridization between Milvus migrans and Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo) was reported from Italy (21 Corso, Andrea, and Roberto Gildi (1998). “Hybrid of Black Kite and Common Buzzard in Italy in 1996.” Dutch Birding 20 (January): 226–33. Close ).

The name "Black Kite" refers to the dark color of most individuals of this species, as opposed to the Red Kite. It is called Milan noir in French and Milano negro in Spanish, both being the direct translation of "Black Kite." The generic name Milvus is the Latin word for "kite." The specific name migrans, "migrating," refers to the migratory behavior of northern populations of this species (22 Jobling, J. A. (1991). A Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ).

Black Kite fossils have been reported from Holocene and Pleistocene deposits of North Africa and Asia (23 Zelenkov, Nikita V, Evgeny N Kurochkin, Alexander A Karhu, and Peter Ballmann. 2008. “Birds of the Late Pleistocene and Holocene from the Palaeolithic Djuktai Cave Site of Yakutia, Eastern Siberia.” Oryctos 7: 217–26. Close ). Remains from Ankilitelo Cave (southwestern Madagascar) have tentatively been attributed to the aegyptius group (24 Goodman, Steven M., Marie Jeanne Raherilalao, and Kathleen Muldoon (2013). “Bird Fossils from Ankilitelo Cave: Inference about Holocene Environmental Changes in Southwestern Madagascar.” Zootaxa 3750 (5): 534–48. Close ).

Editor's Note: Additional distribution information for this taxon can be found in the 'Subspecies' article above. In the future we will develop a range-wide distribution article.

Ubiquitous, occurring from semi desert, grassland, and savanna to woodland, but avoids dense forest; wooded areas particularly important for nesting and roosting. Commonly found in aquatic habitats, e.g. rivers, lakes, wetlands, seashores, and nearby in meadows and along margins of wetlands, but also can be abundant in aridlands (25 Anadón, J.D., Sánchez-Zapata, J.A., Carrete, M., Donázar, J.A. and Hiraldo, F. (2010). Large-scale human effects on an arid African raptor community. Animal Conservation. 13: 495-504. Close ). Often linked with humans to greater or lesser degree, frequenting suburbs, harbors, villages (26 Bijlsma, R.G., van Manen, W. and van der Kamp, J. (2005). Notes on breeding and food of Yellow-billed Kite Milvus migrans parasitus in Mali. Bull. African Bird Club. 12(2): 125-133. Close ), and nomads' camps; has colonized, extremely successfully, large urban areas of Africa and Asia, e.g. Karachi (Pakistan). The number of kites foraging in the rubbish dump at Madrid (Spain) peaked at more than 800 in late summer (27 Blanco, G. (1994). Seasonal abundance of Black Kites associated with the rubbish dump of Madrid, Spain. Journal of Raptor Research. 28(4): 242-245. Close ). Normally in lowlands, but sometimes forages, and may breed, above 2,000 m; even recorded on occasion foraging at c. 4,000 m in Himalayas. Gregarious, sometimes roosting communally, mainly in trees.

Mainly migratory; at least, shows certain nomadic or dispersive tendency after breeding. Nominate <em>migrans</em> markedly migratory, wintering mainly in sub-Saharan Africa (south to South Africa), and to lesser extent in Middle East; <em>lineatus</em> also migratory, although only partially, or even resident, in China and Japan , but some wintering from southeastern Asia and Indian Subcontinent, west to Middle East. Subspecies govinda makes movements to avoid monsoon, and depending on food availability; parasitus shows complex pattern, influenced, like govinda and affinis, by seasonal rains, with South African populations migrating north after breeding; aegyptius mainly resident, although appears south to Kenya and Tanzania outside breeding season, and a bird apparently of this subspecies recorded in Morocco in April 2008 (28 Bergier, P., Franchimont, J. and Thévenot, M. (2009). Les oiseaux rares au Maroc Rapport de la Commission d’Homologation Marocaine Numéro 14 (2008). Go-South Bulletin. 6: 76–91. Close ). Subspecies <em>affinis</em> has resident, partly migratory, and irruptive populations; status of birds in Lesser Sundas uncertain, perhaps only vagrants from Australia.

Migrates in flocks, and concentrates at short sea crossings: 40,000–60,000 birds estimated to cross Strait of Gibraltar on post-breeding migration at Gibraltar annually in early 1990s, but numbers have increased markedly since then, following increases in principal source populations; as many as 180,000 birds may have been involved in post-2010 movements (29 de Juana, E., and E. Garcia (2015). The Birds of the Iberian Peninsula. Bloomsbury, London, UK. Close ). Post-breeding passage at Strait of Gibraltar begins in mid July, peaks August, with very few passing later than September. Spring passage there is much more prolonged; a few arrive as early as January and movement accelerates from mid February, with a clear peak in first half of March when most Iberian breeders arrive, but continues through April and May, with stragglers into June (29 de Juana, E., and E. Garcia (2015). The Birds of the Iberian Peninsula. Bloomsbury, London, UK. Close , 30 Garcia, E. F. J., and K. J. Bensusan (2006). Northbound migrant raptors in June and July at the Strait of Gibraltar. British Birds 99(10): 569–575. Close ). Satellite-tracking of birds from the Doñana National Park, southern Spain, has shown that in the pre-breeding migration kites depart from Africa over five months (late January–late June), with departure date advancing steeply with age up until seven years old, and reaching a stable value thereafter; in addition, speed is maximum for young adults and minimum for juveniles, while journey duration is longest for juveniles, shortest for young adults and intermediate in older kites (31 Sergio, F., Tanferna, A., De Stephanis, R., López Jiménez, L., Blas, J., Tavecchia, G., Preatoni, D. and Hiraldo, F. (2014). Individual improvements and selective mortality shape lifelong migratory performance. Nature. 515: 410–413. Close ). There were 36,690 recorded in spring 1980 at Eilat (Israel), with a mean of 28,249 counted in 1977–1988 (32 Shirihai, H., and D. A. Christie (1992). Raptor migration at Eilat. British Birds 85(4):141–186. Close , 33 Yosef, R. (1995). Spring 1994 raptor migration at Eilat, Israel. Journal of Raptor Research. 29(2): 127–134. Close ). Vagrant to West Hemisphere, where most recently recorded on St Peter and Paul archipelago (Brazil), in April–May 2014 (34 Nunes, G.T., Hoffmann, L.S., Macena, B.C.L., Bencke, G.A. and Bugoni, L. (2015). A Black Kite Milvus migrans on the Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago, Brazil. Revista Brasileira de Ornitologia. 23(1): 31–35. Close ), but also known from several records in the Caribbean, on Barbados (November 2008), Dominica, Guadeloupe (August–November 2008) (35 Buckley, P.A., Massiah, E.B., Hutt, M.B., Buckley, F.G. and Hutt, H.F. (2009). The Birds of Barbados: An Annotated Checklist. BOU Checklist No. 24. British Ornithologists’ Union & British Ornithologists’ Club, Peterborough. Close ), and the British Virgin Is (mid-October 1999) (36 Norton, R. (2000). West Indies region. North American Birds. 54(1): 109–111. Close ).

Very adaptable ; has become extensively commensal with humans . Feeds on wide variety of animal remains, e.g. offal from abattoirs or fisheries, garbage, scraps, any kind of carrion. Also catches live prey: mammals, e.g. voles and other small rodents , moles, young rabbits and hares, bats; small birds, both terrestrial and aquatic, often juveniles, including chicks of domestic poultry; also fish, lizards, amphibians, and invertebrates, e.g. grasshoppers, locusts, crickets, beetles, termites, flying ants, earthworms, crustaceans, and mollusks. Fish often important in diet, normally dead or disabled, and especially small fish; invertebrates can be important locally or seasonally. More unusually, vegetable matter, particularly oil-palm fruits. Catches prey on ground or water; large insects caught in air, then eaten on wing. Often forages around margins of waterbodies, and by refuse dumps , slaughterhouses, or roads, where looks for animals knocked down by traffic. At rubbish dump in Madrid (Spain), refuse is an important food of migrants and non-breeding floaters, whereas resident breeders feed mostly on wild prey away from the dump (37 Blanco, G. (1997). Role of refuse as food for migrant, floater and breeding Black Kites (Milvus migrans). Journal of Raptor Research. J. Raptor Res. 31(1): 71-76. Close ). Breeders at Niger Delta (Mali) took mostly fish and amphibians supplemented with birds, mammals, and scavenged human waste (26 Bijlsma, R.G., van Manen, W. and van der Kamp, J. (2005). Notes on breeding and food of Yellow-billed Kite Milvus migrans parasitus in Mali. Bull. African Bird Club. 12(2): 125-133. Close ). Flies 30 km or more from roosts; slow, fairly low surveying flight, very agile and manoeuvrable; skillful, shameless urban scavenger, taking food from markets or busy streets; also steals from other raptors and other birds. Birds at Ngorongoro Crater (Tanzania) well known for stealing lunch from the hands of unwary tourists and curious ornithologists, the food taken in spectacular dives.

Frequently noisy, even outside nesting season (3 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Main call a drawn-out, downslurred squeal “kleeeeerrrrrr;" sometimes gives “pee-pee-pee” notes in second phrase of squeal (3 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ).

Laying dates very variable, due to vast size of range: in temperate zones of Eurasia, March/April–June; in tropical Africa, normally in dry season; in southern Africa, normally August–December; in Australia, variable, but mainly July–November in south; in Delhi, India, eggs laid mid December–mid April, peaking mid January–mid February (38 Kumar, N., Mohan, D., Jhala, Y.V., Qureshi, Q. and Sergio, F. (2014). Density, laying date, breeding success and diet of Black Kites Milvus migrans govinda in the city of Delhi (India). Bird Study. 61: 1–8. Close ). Laying dates in Italy advanced 10–11 days between 1994 and 2002, coincident with a trend for warmer spring temperatures (39 Sergio, F. (2003). Relationship between laying dates of Black Kites Milvus migrans and spring temperatures in Italy: rapid response to climate change? Journal of Avian Biology. 34(2): 144-149. Close ). Solitary or loosely colonial, up to tens of pairs together. Normally nests in trees (broad-leaved, coniferous, palms), building nest in fork or on branch; also on cliff ledges, locally along coast, on buildings (e.g. Egypt, India) or on pylons. Nest, or nest-site at least, reused annually; stick nest lined with materials such as rags, plastic, paper, dung, or skin. In western Madagascar, mean height of 64 nests was 9.6 m above ground (range 4–14.8 m); males brought 75% of nest material, and nests required 18–83 days to build (40 Andriamalala, T., Rene de Roland, L.-A., Rakotondratsima, M., Razafimanjato, G. and Thorstrom, R. (2013). Nest characteristics of Yellow-billed Kites Milvus aegyptius in the Manambolomaty Lakes Complex, western Madagascar. Ostrich. 84(1): 79-84. Close ). Normally 2–3 eggs (range of 1–4), which ranged in size from 46.1–56.1 mm × 36.3–42.4 mm (26 Bijlsma, R.G., van Manen, W. and van der Kamp, J. (2005). Notes on breeding and food of Yellow-billed Kite Milvus migrans parasitus in Mali. Bull. African Bird Club. 12(2): 125-133. Close ), laid at intervals of 1–2 days; incubation 26–38 days, normally by female almost exclusively; if male brings sufficient food, female may not hunt during entire breeding attempt. In Spain, young fledge at 42–50 days and are independent c. 15–36 days later (41 Bustamante, J. and Hiraldo, F. (1989). Post-fledging dependence period and maturation of flight skills in the Black Kite (Milvus migrans). Bird Study. 36: 199-204. Close ); in Japan, young fledge at 58–63 days and become independent 47 days later on average (42 Koga, K. and Shiraishi, S. (1994). Parent-offspring relations during the post-fledging dependency period in the Black Kite (Milvus migrans) in Japan. Journal of Raptor Research. 28(3): 171-177. Close ). Up to four young per nest fledge, but usually only one; average 0.9–1.2 per breeding pair. First breeding sometimes in first year. Oldest recorded bird 23 years.

Not globally threatened (Least Concern). CITES II. One of commonest of all diurnal raptors, and regionally the commonest, e.g. in Japan and probably in Africa. Favored by adaptability and also by tolerance of humans, although has suffered due to shooting and especially poisons, pesticides, and chemical pollution of water; also vulnerable to mortality from electrocution and collision with powerlines (43 Fernández García, J.M. (1998). Relationship between mortality in electric power lines and avian abundance in a locality of Leon (NW of Spain). Ardeola. 45(1): 63-67. Close ). In decline over wide area, notably in most of Europe, former USSR, and northern Africa. Species all but disappeared from Comoros by end of 1900s; reasons for decline unknown, but perhaps related to changes in slaughtering practices and improved hygiene (44 Louette, M. (1993). Decrease of the Black Kite Milvus migrans and other commensal birds in the Comoros. Scopus. 17(1): 14–18. Close ). Still abundant in much of range, e.g. sub-Saharan Africa and Indian Subcontinent, with c. 2,400 pairs in Delhi alone in late 1960s; however, estimates of population sizes mostly lacking; Delhi population apparently stable, averaging 15 nests/km² in 2013 (38 Kumar, N., Mohan, D., Jhala, Y.V., Qureshi, Q. and Sergio, F. (2014). Density, laying date, breeding success and diet of Black Kites Milvus migrans govinda in the city of Delhi (India). Bird Study. 61: 1–8. Close ). In the 1980s, there were perhaps c. 20,000–24,000 pairs in Europe (excluding former USSR), including c. 9,000 in Spain and 5,800–8,000 in France; in early 1990s, perhaps c. 60,000 pairs in European Russia and 500–600 pairs in Byelorussia; still fairly common, but declining throughout Ukraine. Spring counts of migrants crossing Strait of Gibraltar increased by > 100% between 1967 and 2004 (45 Bensusan, K.J., Garcia, E.F.J. and Cortes, J.E. (2007). Trends in abundance of migrating raptors at Gibraltar in spring. Ardea. 95(1): 83-90. Close ). In general, there has been a marked population increase in populations of the Iberian Peninsula and France since the 1980s, perhaps reflecting reduced use of agrochemicals and poison baits; recent estimates put the Spanish population at > 13,000 pairs and that in France at 19,300–24,600 pairs (46 Palomino, D. and Valls, J. (2011). Las rapaces forestales en España. Población reproductora en 2009–2010 y método de censo. SEO/Birdlife, Madrid. Close , 47 Thiollay, J.-M. and Bretagnolle, V. eds. (2004). Rapaces nicheurs de France. Distribution, effectifs et conservation. Delachaux et Niestlé. Paris. Close ). In Israel, in early 1970s, recolonization as breeder, and particularly as winter visitor, following extirpation due to agricultural pesticide poisoning in 1950s. Tolerance of humans and habitat modification reflected in fact that abundance in Botswana is higher in unprotected areas than in protected areas (48 Herremans, M. and Herremans-Tonnoeyr, D. (2000). Land use and the conservation status of raptors in Botswana. Biological Conservation. 94(1): 31-41. Close ). In Italy, however, where species is in decline, urban areas are favored by nesting birds only near waterbodies and otherwise are avoided (49 Sergio, F., Pedrini, P. and Marchesi, L. (2003). Adaptive selection of foraging and nesting habitat by Black Kites (Milvus migrans) and its implications for conservation: a multi-scale approach. Biological Conservation. 112(3): 351-362. Close ).