Eurasian Hoopoe Upupa epops Scientific name definitions

19–32 cm (1 Rasmussen, P. C., and J. C. Anderton (2005). Birds of South Asia: the Ripley Guide. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Close ); nominate 46–89 g, africana 38–67 g, senegalensis 39–62 g (sexes combined) (2 Fry, C. H., S. Keith, and E. K. Urban, Editors (1988). The Birds of Africa. Volume 3. Parrots to Woodpeckers. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ). Unmistakable, with long, thin, decurved bill (5–6 cm), large crest , black-and-white rounded wings , and broad black tail with white band near base; in flight , white (or creamy white) and black bands on inner wing, wholly black primary-coverts, black primaries. Male nominate race pale sandy-buff, tinged pinkish below, fea­thers of crest with white subterminal spots and black tips; white band across tips of primaries, white tips on inner primaries; bill grey, legs rather short, flesh-grey to dark grey. Sexes similar except female slightly smaller and duller, throat more whitish. Juvenile like female, but crest and bill shorter, and duller. Races vary mainly in size, depth of coloration and some other details, most of S ones lacking white subterminal spots on crest feathers: saturata similar to nominate, slightly greyer on mantle, slightly less pink-tinged below, with both sexes of nominate epops appearing paler and more yellowish red compared to this race (3 Ericson, P.G.P. (1997). Swedish records of the eastern Palearctic Hoopoe subspecies Upupa epops saturata. Bull. Brit. Orn. Club. 117(1): 19–26. Close ); <em>ceylonensis</em> overall smaller (19–20 cm versus 21–22 cm elsewhere in Indian Subcontinent) (1 Rasmussen, P. C., and J. C. Anderton (2005). Birds of South Asia: the Ripley Guide. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Close ), has smaller, more rufous, crest (41–49 mm versus 49–52 mm elsewhere in Indian Subcontinent) (1 Rasmussen, P. C., and J. C. Anderton (2005). Birds of South Asia: the Ripley Guide. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Close ) without subterminal white, and foreparts much darker, richer buff (1 Rasmussen, P. C., and J. C. Anderton (2005). Birds of South Asia: the Ripley Guide. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Close ); <em>longirostris</em> larger, somewhat paler than last, white wingbars narrower, bill longer and crest broader and larger (1 Rasmussen, P. C., and J. C. Anderton (2005). Birds of South Asia: the Ripley Guide. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Close ); <em>major</em> larger, bill longer, upperparts greyer, tailband narrower and belly more streaked (2 Fry, C. H., S. Keith, and E. K. Urban, Editors (1988). The Birds of Africa. Volume 3. Parrots to Woodpeckers. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ); <em>senegalensis</em> small, wings shorter (132–146 mm in male compared to 140–156 mm in nominate) (2 Fry, C. H., S. Keith, and E. K. Urban, Editors (1988). The Birds of Africa. Volume 3. Parrots to Woodpeckers. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ), more white on secondaries; waibeli like previous but darker, slightly more white in wing; africana very deep rufous, secondary bases fully white on male, almost so on female (unless sex difference age-related), no white bar across outer primaries.

Editor's Note: This article requires further editing work to merge existing content into the appropriate Subspecies sections. Please bear with us while this update takes place.

Editor's Note: Additional distribution information for this taxon can be found in the 'Subspecies' article above. In the future we will develop a range-wide distribution article.

Open country such as pastures, parkland, orchards, sand-heathland, olive groves, vineyards, also steppe and broken ground in Asia, and dry and wooded savanna in Africa; favours short-grass sward or bare ground, with scattered trees or cliffs to provide holes for roosting and nesting. Requires presence of features offering perches , shade, nest-sites and accessible food; frequently found around villages and in traditionally farmed areas. Recorded breeding to 3000 m in Turkey (8 Kirwan, G. M., K. A. Boyla, P. Castell, B. Demirci, M. Özen, H. Welch, and T. Marlow (2008). The Birds of Turkey: The Distribution, Taxonomy and Breeding of Turkish Birds. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ), 4600 m in Indian Subcontinent (1 Rasmussen, P. C., and J. C. Anderton (2005). Birds of South Asia: the Ripley Guide. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Close ) and 4400 m in Tibet (9 Lu, X., Ke, D., Ma, X., Gong, G. and Yu, T. (2010). Nesting records of 258 bird species in Lhasa region, Tibet. Chinese Birds. 1(3): 167–174. Close ). Occurs to 1700 m in winter in S Asia (1 Rasmussen, P. C., and J. C. Anderton (2005). Birds of South Asia: the Ripley Guide. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Close ), but found mainly at 1200–2400 m in Bhutan at this season, with one Jan record from 2800 m (10 Spierenburg, P. (2005). Birds in Bhutan: Status and Distribution. Oriental Bird Club, Bedford, UK. Close ).

N populations migratory (performing loop migration) (11 Bächler, E., Hahn, S., Schaub, M., Arlettaz, R., Jenni, L., Fox, J.W., Afanasyev, V. and Liechti, F. (2010). Year-round tracking of small trans-Saharan migrants using light-level geolocators. PLOS One. 5(3): e9566. Close ), most others partial migrants; nominate epops in NW Africa, Canary Is, Israel (12 Shirihai, H. (1996). The Birds of Israel: A Complete Avifauna and Bird Atlas of Israel. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ) and Arabia (13 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission and Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and Frankfurt, Germany. Close ), and race major in Egypt and N Sudan more sedentary. Nominate epops from W Palearctic mainly winters in sub-Saharan Africa S to about Kenya, with few farther S (e.g. Malawi) (14 Dowsett-Lemaire, F., and R. J. Dowsett (2006). The Birds of Malawi: An Atlas and Handbook. Tauraco Press & Aves, Liège, Belgium. Close ), and W to Gambia (15 King, M. (2000). Noteworthy records from Ginak Island, The Gambia. Malimbus. 22(2): 77–85. Close ), but some individuals occasionally remain in Europe, even as far N as UK (16 White, S. and C. Kehoe (2015). Report on scarce migrant birds in Britain in 27711–12. Part I: non-passerines. British Birds 108(3):126–157. Close ) and Sweden (3 Ericson, P.G.P. (1997). Swedish records of the eastern Palearctic Hoopoe subspecies Upupa epops saturata. Bull. Brit. Orn. Club. 117(1): 19–26. Close ), while E Palearctic populations generally move shorter distances S to S India and China, but race saturata and birds belonging to nominate epops from populations N of Caspian and Aral Seas have been recorded W to Sweden in autumn/winter (3 Ericson, P.G.P. (1997). Swedish records of the eastern Palearctic Hoopoe subspecies Upupa epops saturata. Bull. Brit. Orn. Club. 117(1): 19–26. Close ), as well as in United Arab Emirates (13 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission and Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and Frankfurt, Germany. Close ); autumn passage peaks in Sept; can cross higher altitudes, recorded at up to 6400 m in Himalayas; return starts mid Jan to Mar, with temperature and precipitation levels on wintering grounds strong determinants on date of departure, and passage persisting in W Palearctic until at least mid May, even as far S as Turkey (8 Kirwan, G. M., K. A. Boyla, P. Castell, B. Demirci, M. Özen, H. Welch, and T. Marlow (2008). The Birds of Turkey: The Distribution, Taxonomy and Breeding of Turkish Birds. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ); in N Mongolia, earliest arrival on breeding grounds in mid Apr, when still winter conditions there. Northbound migrants in spring regularly overshoot breeding grounds and are responsible for majority of records in UK (although also recorded in autumn and even winter), which have averaged c. 120 per annum since 1968 (17 White, S. and C. Kehoe (2014). Report on scarce migrant birds in Britain in 2008–10. Part 1: non-passerines. British Birds 107(3):142–176. Close ), with maxima of 224 (1958) and 240 (1968) (18 Fraser, P.A. and Ryan, J.F. (1994). Scarce migrants in Britain and Ireland. Part 2. Numbers during 1986-92: gulls to passerines. British Birds. 87(12): 605–612. Close ), and more than 5000 records to the end of 2013 (19 Fraser, P. A. (2013). Report on scarce migrant birds in Britain in 2004–2007. Part I: non-passerines. British Birds 106(7):368–404. Close , 17 White, S. and C. Kehoe (2014). Report on scarce migrant birds in Britain in 2008–10. Part 1: non-passerines. British Birds 107(3):142–176. Close , 20 White, S. and C. Kehoe (2016). Report on scarce migrant birds in Britain in 2013. Part 1: non-passerines. British Birds 109(1):21–45. Close ). Mainly moves alone or in small groups, but larger flocks of up to 70 reported, e.g. on passage through E Arabia (13 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission and Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and Frankfurt, Germany. Close ), and exceptionally up to 138 at Tripoli airport (Libya) in late Aug (21 Bundy, G. (2009). Unusually large assembly of Hoopoes. British Birds. 102(11): 635–636. Close ). Rare straggler S to Lakshadweep Is (1 Rasmussen, P. C., and J. C. Anderton (2005). Birds of South Asia: the Ripley Guide. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Close ), Maldives (22 Ash, J. S., and A. Shafeeg (1994). Birds of the Maldive Islands, Indian Ocean. Forktail 10:3–32. Close ), Andamans (1 Rasmussen, P. C., and J. C. Anderton (2005). Birds of South Asia: the Ripley Guide. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Close ), N Sumatra, NW Borneo, N Sulawesi (23 McNeill, R.D. and Lambaihang, J. (2013). First record of Eurasian Hoopoe Upupa epops for Wallacea. Kukila. 17(1): 39–40. Close ), N Philippines, Alaska (USA, Sept 1975) and Western Australia (Nov–Dec 2011, probably saturata) (24 Palliser, T., and M. Carter (2013). Rare birds: the 2012 BARC report. Australian Birdlife 2(4):50–53. Close ).

Mostly larger insects and their soft soil-dwelling larvae and pupae; body size of prey rarely exceeds bill length. Crickets (Gryllidae), mole-crickets (Gryllotalpidae), other Orthoptera, beetles (mainly coprophagous scarabaeids and zoophagous carabids), phytophagous caterpillars, also spiders, termites (25 Symens, P. (1990). Effects of the mass migration of desert locusts Schistocerca gregaria on birds in the Taif area, Saudi Arabia. Sandgrouse 12(1):3–7. Close ), ants, locusts, ant-lions (Myrmeleonidae), Tipula larvae, shieldbugs, centipedes; also spiders. Also small vertebrates up to 15 cm long, e.g. lizards, snakes, frogs, geckos, but an attack on a large (7-cm) guttural toad (Amietophrynus gutturalis) appears unprecedented and there is no evidence that the Hoopoe attempted to eat the prey (26 Norval, G. and Stevens, D. (2011). An attack by a Hoopoe Upupa epops on a Guttural Toad Amietophrynus gutturalis. Bull. African Bird Club. 18(2): 215–216. Close ). In Swiss Alps, nestlings provisioned mainly with mole-cricket Gryllotalpa gryllotalpa and Lepidoptera (larvae and pupae) (93% by frequency; 97% biomass), with mole-crickets less frequent (26%) than Lepidoptera (67%), but accounting for 68% of total biomass (29% Lepidoptera) (27 Fournier, J. and Arlettaz, R. (2001). Food provision to nestlings in the Hoopoe Upupa epops: implications for the conservation of a small endangered population in the Swiss Alps. Ibis. 143(1): 2–10. Close ). Usually forages alone , or pairs feed in close proximity. Forages mostly on ground , digging and probing with bill in soft earth; also turns over leaves and other debris, probes in refuse and dry dung for insects and invertebrates, and occasionally pokes at carrion. Occasionally uses bill to prise off tree bark, or forages among lichen on branches. Race africana is one of the few Afrotropical non-passerines known to engage in passive anting (28 Craig, A. J. F. K. (1999). Anting in Afrotropical birds: a review. Ostrich 70(3–4):203–207. Close ).

Voices of Eurasian and African forms considered identical. Song (audible up to 800 m) (2 Fry, C. H., S. Keith, and E. K. Urban, Editors (1988). The Birds of Africa. Volume 3. Parrots to Woodpeckers. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ) in Eurasia mellow, flat and somewhat mechanical-sounding 2–4-note series of “uup-uup(uup-uup)”, “hoo-poo” or “hoo-poo-poo” notes, each one identical in pitch and speed, and repeated every few seconds; perhaps most like Oriental Cuckoo (Cuculus saturatus), but sound is sweeter, slightly higher-pitched and more uniform (first note of cuckoo is higher than rest, but may be inaudible) (1 Rasmussen, P. C., and J. C. Anderton (2005). Birds of South Asia: the Ripley Guide. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Close ). Song may be accompanied by very harsh, downslurred hissing note, which may become an irregular series, and can be given independently (1 Rasmussen, P. C., and J. C. Anderton (2005). Birds of South Asia: the Ripley Guide. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Close ). Song of male used both to attract female and in mate defence (29 Martín-Vivaldi, M., Palomino, J.J. and Soler, M. (1999). Function of song in the Hoopoe Upupa epops. Bird Study. 46(1): 104–111. Close ). Other calls recorded from mainland Africa and European birds include: quiet flight call, "huk”; both sexes give ‘swizzle’ call in pre-breeding period, like carving knife being sharpened on steel; which is used in following partner or rival; sound like old-fashioned football rattle, by male chasing male or female; shorter ‘swizzle’ used by male showing nest-hole to female during pair formation and also prior to copulation; a throaty, rolling “choorie” given by male when feeding female or young, which is quiet but can be repeated; “chwrr” in alarm; snake-like hissing by female or young in nest, in response to potential predators; and begging calls by nestlings (2 Fry, C. H., S. Keith, and E. K. Urban, Editors (1988). The Birds of Africa. Volume 3. Parrots to Woodpeckers. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ). Studies in S Europe (Spain) show that strophe length is the main song feature differing between individual males: during pre-laying period each bird uses mainly strophes of just two lengths, but some males change the range of strophe types produced and decrease their mean strophe length after unsuccessful breeding or spending long periods of time singing without attracting a mate (30 Martín-Vivaldi, M., Palomino, J.J. and Soler, M. (1998). Song structure in the Hoopoe (Upupa epops). Strophe length reflects male condition. [Struktur des Gesangs des Wiedehopfes (Upupa epops). Strophenlänge reflektiert Männchen-qualität]. Journal of Ornithology. 139(3): 287–296. Close ). It is probable that singing long strophes is energetically more costly than singing short ones (30 Martín-Vivaldi, M., Palomino, J.J. and Soler, M. (1998). Song structure in the Hoopoe (Upupa epops). Strophe length reflects male condition. [Struktur des Gesangs des Wiedehopfes (Upupa epops). Strophenlänge reflektiert Männchen-qualität]. Journal of Ornithology. 139(3): 287–296. Close ), but apparently certain that strophe length is a sexually selected song cue (31 Martín-Vivaldi, M., Palomino, J.J. and Soler, M. (2000). Attraction of Hoopoe (Upupa epops) females and males by means of field song playback: influence of strophe length. Journal of Avian Biology. 31(3): 351–359. Close ), especially given the recent discovery that females paired with males singing long strophes lay their first clutch earlier, produce larger first clutches and lay second clutches after a successful first one more frequently than those paired with males singing short strophes, while males with long strophes produce more fledglings in their first clutches and over entire season, partly because they bring more food for young than males with short strophes (32 Martín-Vivaldi, M., Palomino, J.J., Soler, M. and Martínez, J.G. (1999). Song strophe-length and reproductive success in a non-passerine bird, the Hoopoe Upupa epops. Ibis. 141(4): 670–679. Close ).

Season Jan/Feb–May/Aug (13 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission and Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and Frankfurt, Germany. Close ) in Palearctic, mostly Aug–Jan in E Africa, Jul–Dec in S Africa (but mainly Sept–Oct) (2 Fry, C. H., S. Keith, and E. K. Urban, Editors (1988). The Birds of Africa. Volume 3. Parrots to Woodpeckers. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ), and Jan–Jun in Malay Peninsula; in S of range double-brooded (19% of pairs in S Spain) (32 Martín-Vivaldi, M., Palomino, J.J., Soler, M. and Martínez, J.G. (1999). Song strophe-length and reproductive success in a non-passerine bird, the Hoopoe Upupa epops. Ibis. 141(4): 670–679. Close ), even triple-brooded in Arabia (13 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission and Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and Frankfurt, Germany. Close ), with 36% of females and 21% of males in long-term Swiss study producing a second clutch after successfully raising a first one (33 Hoffmann, J., Postma, E. and Schaub, M. (2015). Factors influencing double brooding in Eurasian Hoopoes Upupa epops. Ibis. 157(1): 17–30. Close ). However, overall productivity in a given season by one pair is not necessarily correlated to the number of nesting attempts (32 Martín-Vivaldi, M., Palomino, J.J., Soler, M. and Martínez, J.G. (1999). Song strophe-length and reproductive success in a non-passerine bird, the Hoopoe Upupa epops. Ibis. 141(4): 670–679. Close ), but in Switzerland double-brooded females had higher annual success (9·1 ±
1·9 fledgling) and lifetime sucess (0·93 ±
0·08 recruits) than single-brooded birds (4·5 ±
2·1 fledglings and 0.36
± 0.03 recruits, respectively) (33 Hoffmann, J., Postma, E. and Schaub, M. (2015). Factors influencing double brooding in Eurasian Hoopoes Upupa epops. Ibis. 157(1): 17–30. Close ). Monogamous, solitary and territorial breeder, although in SE Spain DNA-fingerprinting revealed that 10% of broods contained offspring (7·7% of chicks) sired by extra-pair males, and > 25% of broods were visited by such males, with c. 10% being fed or defended by them, apparently in attempt by extra-pair male to copulate with female, or to access such females or nests in future breeding attempts (34 Martín-Vivaldi, M., Martínez, J.G., Palomino, J.J. and Soler, M. (2002). Extrapair paternity in the Hoopoe Upupa epops: an exploration of the influence of interactions between breeding pairs, non-pair males and strophe length. Ibis. 144(2): 236–247. Close ). Between years, females disperse more often and over longer distances than males, but dispersal is only weakly affected by age and previous reproductive success (35 Bötsch, Y., Arlettaz, R. and Schaub, M. (2012). Breeding dispersal of Eurasian Hoopoes (Upupa epops) within and between years in relation to reproductive success, sex, and age. Auk. 129(2): 283−295. Close ). Home range 20–70 ha, but active nests discovered just 70 m apart in Israel (12 Shirihai, H. (1996). The Birds of Israel: A Complete Avifauna and Bird Atlas of Israel. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ), or 150 m in SW Saudi Arabia, with another report of four pairs within 3 km² in Yemen highlands (13 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission and Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and Frankfurt, Germany. Close ); elsewhere, in W Spain (Extremadura), typically 2·1–2·5 territories/100 ha, but sometimes up to 12–14 territories/100 ha (36 Rehsteiner, U. (1996). Abundance and habitat requirements of the Hoopoe Upupa epops in Extremadura (Spain). [Siedlungsdichte und Habitatanspruche des Wiedehopfes Upupa epops in Extremadura (Spanien)]. Orn. Beob.. 93(3): 277–287. (In English with German summary.). Close ). Nest in natural hole in stump, tree , wall, old building, or cliff, or among boulders, in abandoned vehicles (37 Al-Safadi, M. M. (2006). Observations on the breeding birds of the Gaza Strip, Palestine. Sandgrouse 28(1):22–33. Close ), drainpipes, wells and roof spaces (38 Chadder, W.J. (2001). Hoopoes nesting in surburban dwellings. Honeyguide. 47(1): 96. Close , 13 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission and Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and Frankfurt, Germany. Close ), unlined or slightly lined, usually relatively close to ground but exceptionally up to 40 m above it (13 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission and Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and Frankfurt, Germany. Close ); also uses nestboxes (some populations dependent on such sites) (39 Berthier, K., Leippert, F., Fumagalli, L. and Arlettaz, R. (2012). Massive nest-box supplementation boosts fecundity, survival and even immigration without altering mating and reproductive behaviour in a rapidly recovered bird population. PLOS One. 7(4): e36028. Close ) and may occasionally adopt disused nest of another species, e.g. Syrian Woodpecker (Dendrocopos syriacus) (8 Kirwan, G. M., K. A. Boyla, P. Castell, B. Demirci, M. Özen, H. Welch, and T. Marlow (2008). The Birds of Turkey: The Distribution, Taxonomy and Breeding of Turkish Birds. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ), with especially unusual nest-sites including a lawn sprinkler cavity (below ground level), a roll of carpet and an ornamental fountain (13 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission and Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and Frankfurt, Germany. Close ). May use same site for several seasons (13 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission and Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and Frankfurt, Germany. Close ). Eggs 4–7 in tropics including Arabia (13 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission and Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and Frankfurt, Germany. Close ), 5–8 in Palearctic, whitish, 21·1–25·3 mm × 16–18·6 mm (South Africa) (2 Fry, C. H., S. Keith, and E. K. Urban, Editors (1988). The Birds of Africa. Volume 3. Parrots to Woodpeckers. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ), 24·5–26 mm × 17·5–19 mm (Palestine) (37 Al-Safadi, M. M. (2006). Observations on the breeding birds of the Gaza Strip, Palestine. Sandgrouse 28(1):22–33. Close ) or 25·1–28 mm × 16·9–18·7 mm (Tibet) (9 Lu, X., Ke, D., Ma, X., Gong, G. and Yu, T. (2010). Nesting records of 258 bird species in Lhasa region, Tibet. Chinese Birds. 1(3): 167–174. Close ), 3·7–4·9 g (37 Al-Safadi, M. M. (2006). Observations on the breeding birds of the Gaza Strip, Palestine. Sandgrouse 28(1):22–33. Close ), laid daily; incubation by female provisioned by male (5–8 times per hour) (2 Fry, C. H., S. Keith, and E. K. Urban, Editors (1988). The Birds of Africa. Volume 3. Parrots to Woodpeckers. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ), period 15–18 days (2 Fry, C. H., S. Keith, and E. K. Urban, Editors (1988). The Birds of Africa. Volume 3. Parrots to Woodpeckers. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ), commencing with first or third egg, respectively, depending on clutch number (2 Fry, C. H., S. Keith, and E. K. Urban, Editors (1988). The Birds of Africa. Volume 3. Parrots to Woodpeckers. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ); nestling has white down in first 3–5 days, later covered in long spiny quills, crest developing by day 14; at 20–24 days chicks sit in nest entrance; nestling period 26–32 days in South Africa, 22–28 days in C Europe and Asia (37 Al-Safadi, M. M. (2006). Observations on the breeding birds of the Gaza Strip, Palestine. Sandgrouse 28(1):22–33. Close ). In S Spain, predation accounted for 55% of nest losses, with nest desertion and death of females in nest (17% each) also important, while proportion of eggs per clutch that failed to produce fledglings in successful clutches was very high (49%), mostly due to death of chicks, which normally died very young and in sequence determined by intra-brood hierarchy due to complete hatching asynchrony (32 Martín-Vivaldi, M., Palomino, J.J., Soler, M. and Martínez, J.G. (1999). Song strophe-length and reproductive success in a non-passerine bird, the Hoopoe Upupa epops. Ibis. 141(4): 670–679. Close ) (immune system response to parasites also varies between senior and junior chicks) (40 Martín-Vivaldi, M., Ruiz-Rodríguez, M., Méndez, M. and Soler, J.J. (2006). Relative importance of factors affecting nestling immune response differs between junior and senior nestlings within broods of hoopoes Upupa epops. Journal of Avian Biology. 37(5): 467–476. Close ). However, in Swiss Alps, climatic factors (especially temperature and rainfall) can have positive and negative impacts, respectively, on output, with rainfall prior to hatching and during first days of chick life having a negative impact on survival, but temperature can have a positive effect on chick survival just prior to fledging (41 Arlettaz, R., Schaad, M., Reichlin, T.S. and Schaub, M. (2010). Impact of weather and climate variation on Hoopoe reproductive ecology and population growth. Journal of Ornithology. 151(4): 889–899. Close ). Breeding success relatively high: in C Europe, 172 eggs laid in 24 nests produced average of 4·3 fledglings per nest; using nest-boxes, first broods in E Germany averaged 4·4–5·3 young fledged per nest, those in SW Switzerland 4·8–5·7, whereas second broods in E Germany averaged 3·2–3·6; rarely, seven chicks raised from single brood; in SW Saudi Arabia, mean clutch at six nests was 5·3 eggs, of which mean 3·8 (76%) hatched and 2·3 chicks (44%) per nest fledged (13 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission and Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and Frankfurt, Germany. Close ). In Swiss Alps, breeding success lower in foothills versus plains regions, apparently due to the relative lack of mole-crickets, which are single-most important prey fed to nestlings (see Food and Feeding) (27 Fournier, J. and Arlettaz, R. (2001). Food provision to nestlings in the Hoopoe Upupa epops: implications for the conservation of a small endangered population in the Swiss Alps. Ibis. 143(1): 2–10. Close ). Infanticide recorded in India, presumably by replacement male (42 Ghosh, S. (1999). Infanticide in Hoopoe Upupa epops Linnaeus. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 96(2): 318–319. Close ). First breeding at one year, perhaps at two. Healthy adult predated by Grey Heron (Ardea cinerea) (43 Greaves, C. (1991). Grey Heron catching, killing and swallowing Hoopoe. British Birds. 84(1): 57–58. Close ) and commonly fall prey to Eleonora’s Falcon (Falco eleonorae) and Sooty Falcon (F. concolor) in Oman (44 Fry, C.H., Eriksen, H. and Eriksen, J. (1993). The Hoopoe’s spreadeagle posture: predator reaction or sunning? British Birds. 86(3): 121–124. Close ).

Not globally threatened (Least Concern). Over 700,000 breeding pairs thought to occur in Europe alone (strongholds in Iberia, with up to 600,000, and France, with c. 30,000), a further c. 158,000 in European Russia, with Arabian population estimated at 46,000 pairs (13 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission and Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and Frankfurt, Germany. Close ), and 5000–10,000 pairs in Israel (12 Shirihai, H. (1996). The Birds of Israel: A Complete Avifauna and Bird Atlas of Israel. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ); total world population recently estimated at 5,000,000–10,000,000 birds. Protected in most countries; in some listed as highly endangered (e.g. Germany), in more countries regarded as vulnerable or endangered. Decreasing trends reported in Europe, especially in peripheral populations, e.g. Switzerland (27 Fournier, J. and Arlettaz, R. (2001). Food provision to nestlings in the Hoopoe Upupa epops: implications for the conservation of a small endangered population in the Swiss Alps. Ibis. 143(1): 2–10. Close ) (although even here local increases have been reported) (45 Schaub, M., Reichlin, T.S., Abadi, F., Kéry, M., Jenni, L. and Arlettaz, R. (2012). The demographic drivers of local population dynamics in two rare migratory birds. Oecologia. 168: 97–108. Close ), but also in such strongholds as France , Ukraine, Romania and Greece. Range contraction towards S combined with decline in numbers in most European countries evidently part of longer-term trend apparent since late 19th and early 20th centuries, although comparatively small German population (650–800 pairs) currently increasing (46 Gedeon, K., C. Grüneberg, A. Mitschke, C. Sudfeldt, W. Eikhorst, S. Fischer, M. Flade, S. Frick, I. Geiersberger, B. Koop, M. Kramer, T. Krüger, N. Roth, T. Ryslavy, S. Stübing, S. R. Sudmann, S. Steffens, F. Vökler, and K. Witt (2014). Atlas Deutscher Brutvogelarten [Atlas of German Breeding Birds]. Stiftung Vogelmonitoring Deutschland und Dachverband Deutscher Avifaunisten, Münster, Germany. Close ). Arabian population apparently expanding its range due to prevalence of irrigation schemes (13 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission and Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and Frankfurt, Germany. Close ), while that in Israel has also increased in size and range since 1950s, and become less migratory, due to expansion of cultivation (12 Shirihai, H. (1996). The Birds of Israel: A Complete Avifauna and Bird Atlas of Israel. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ). In past, locally common in N Malay Peninsula, where appears to have declined notably, probably as a result of hunting and disturbance; no recent evidence of nesting, and most recent records may refer to migrants. In Germany, species is good bio-indicator for areas of sand-heathland (typically abandoned military areas), where sometimes present at high densities. Hunted in Mediterranean region, Kuwait (13 Jennings, M. C. (2010). Atlas of the Breeding Birds of Arabia. Fauna of Arabia 25. King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Saudi Wildlife Commission and Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia and Frankfurt, Germany. Close ) and in parts of SE Asia, with hunting pressure in Israel, where wildlife protection laws are strong, coming from Thai guest workers (47 Yom-Tov, Y. (2003). Poaching of Israeli wildlife by guest workers. Biological Conservation 110(1):11–20. Close ).