Common Kingfisher Alcedo atthis Scientific name definitions

16–18 cm; male 23–35 g (atthis), 29–45 g (ispida), 19–40 g (bengalen­sis), female 30–35 g (atthis), 34–46 g (ispida), 20–30 g (bengalensis). In most of its range the only small blue kingfisher. Male nominate race rufous loral spot , black eyestripe, rufous ear-coverts, white neckstripe ; crown and malar stripe barred blue and black; upperparts and tail brilliant azure-blue, wings dark greenish-blue with paler blue spots; white chin and throat, rufous underparts; bill black, gape red; iris dark brown; legs and feet orange-red. Distinguished from similar small Alcedo species by rufous ear-coverts. Female like male, but lower mandible orange-red with black tip. Juvenile duller, greener than adult, paler below, dusky barring on breast, whitish tip of bill, black legs and feet. Race ispida slightly larger, bluer crown, darker rufous underparts; bengalensis smaller, brighter; <em>taprobana</em> similar in size to previous, but upperparts bright blue, not green-blue; floresiana darker blues on upperparts, some blue feathers on rufous ear-coverts; hispidoides ear-coverts blue, purple tinges on hindneck and rump; <em>salomonensis</em> ear-coverts blue, more extensive purple-blue upperparts .

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Editor's Note: Additional distribution information for this taxon can be found in the 'Subspecies' article above. In the future we will develop a range-wide distribution article.

Still or gently flowing water with plentiful small fish, and with reeds, rushes or shrubs on the banks for perches, are essential aspects of the habitat. Streams, small rivers, canals and ditches preferred to open waterbodies, but also uses lakes, ponds and flooded gravel pits. Suitable banks for nesting required in breeding season, but nest-sites can be over 250 m from foraging waters. In winter becomes more coastal, frequenting also estuaries, harbours and rocky seashores . In tropical regions, is found in the lower reaches of rivers, often with densely vegetated banks, in creeks in mangroves, at swamps and wet grassland, and in large gardens. In E parts of range comes into contact with several other similar species, which may restrict its habitat selection.

N populations, in areas where freezing conditions in winter, regularly migrate S, generally staying within species’ breeding range; populations in C Europe migrate in severe winters, and S populations (e.g. in Spain) are mainly sedentary. Distance moved varies, up to 250 km in Britain, 500 km in France and Belgium, 1500 km in Czechoslovakia, to 3000 km in Russia; non-breeding birds present in N Africa Sept–Apr and in Sudan Oct–Mar. In Hokkaido (N Japan), birds depart in mid-Sept and return late Apr or early May. One ringed in Korea was recovered 2 months later in Luzon, in N Philippines. In S Malay Peninsula, birds were netted at Fraser’s Hill only during Aug–Oct, but at Selangor they were present Aug–Mar. Migrates mainly at night, and pronounced movements evident along Mediterranean shores and over Malaysian mountains in autumn; during migration may form small flocks. Wintering birds establish territories, and juveniles may stay together as pairs or groups.

Fish the main prey in Europe: include minnows (Phoxinus), sticklebacks (Gasterosteus), bullhead (Cottus), roach (Rutilis), barbel (Barbus), grayling (Thymallus), trout (Salmo), dace and chub (Leuciscus), perch (Perca), young pike (Esox), loach (Cobitis, Noemacheilus), carp (Carassius), gudgeon (Gobio), ruffe (Acerina), bleak (Alburnus), nase (Chondrostoma), and many other species up to 125 mm long. Also takes aquatic insects, including water-bugs (Hemiptera), water beetles (Dytiscidae), dragonfly nymphs and occasionally adults (Odonata), mayflies (Ephemeroptera), lacewings (Neuroptera), stoneflies (Plecoptera), caddis flies (Trichoptera); also flies (Diptera), butterflies and moths (Lepidoptera), amphibians (Rana), crayfish (Astacus), prawns (Palaemon), shrimps (Gammarus) and isopods in winter. Very occasionally feeds on berries (Rubus, Sambucus) and stems of reed (Phragmites). In Britain and Ireland diet consisted of 60% fish, 20% insects and larvae, 5% crustacea, 5% tadpoles, and 5% molluscs; in Belgium, bullhead and loaches formed 96% of remains in pellets; elsewhere in Europe more variable diet, e.g. in Spain 78% fish, 10% crustaceans, 8% insects, 3% frogs. Wintering birds in Malaysia fed mainly on fish (60%) and shrimps  (30%), with median prey length of 30 mm. Found to consume 50–60% of its body mass daily, requiring 38 successful dives; one bird ate 13–21 minnows daily, a total of 46 g. Perches for long periods, usually 1–2 m above the water , occasionally to 11 m, periodically turning around and bobbing head and body to gauge distance when food sighted; dives steeply and catches prey below water to maximum depth of 1 m; using its buoyancy and flapping the wings, it rises through water bill first and flies back to its perch, where the fish is held near the tail , beaten against perch several times, then positioned lengthways in bill and swallowed head first ; larger prey given longer and more thorough beating, held by tail and head battered against perch. Prey sometimes become impaled on thorns or wire during beating and may be left. Sometimes takes prey from water surface, and where no perches avai-lable will hover before diving. Seen to follow a foraging smooth-coated otter (Lutrogale perspicillata) to feed on fish and other displaced aquatic animals. Insects taken in flight. In Nepal, dives from perch for fish were 38% successful, but 54% successful from hovering. In Malaysia, 90% of foraging was diving from perch, 2·6% from hovering, 0·9% from horizontal flight, and overall success rate was 53%. In Kashmir, most feeding activity during 10:00–12:00 hours and 17:00–19:00 hours, avoiding peak feeding times of Ceryle rudis and Halcyon smyrnensis, but in Malaysia no well-defined activity patterns. Several times each day regurgitates a small pellet of indigestible fish bones and insect parts.

Short , shrill “chee, chee” in flight; alarm a harsher “tjii”; harsh grating “kritritrit” as threat; advertising call “tee titi titi titi”; song a mixture of whistles and warbles; begging call of female a plaintive “chee chee”, excitement call “tsuk tsuk”; nestlings first make plaintive “cheep cheep”, after 10 days becoming a churring, and at fledging a sharp “zipp” or “tschick” as contact.

Lays in Mar–Jul (mainly Apr) in Britain, mainly May in Sweden; in Mar–May in Morocco and Iraq; in Apr–Jul in Kashmir, in Mar–Jun in N & C India, in Feb–Sept (mainly Mar–Apr) in S India, and in Nov–Jun in Sri Lanka; in Mar–Jun in Myanmar, in Jan–Feb and possibly Jun in Malaysia; in Mar–Aug in Japan; and in Jun in Papua New Guinea; normally 1 or 2 broods, occasionally 3 or 4 reared successively. Monogamous, but record of polygamy in Sweden. Solitary breeder; 1 record of a first-year male helper bringing food to a nest. Resident birds pair in autumn but retain separate territories of c. 1 km until spring, when they merge; territories defended by calling in flight and by displaying from perch, where sits quietly, crouches and stretches, swaying body from side to side, or sits very upright with neck outstretched, bill agape and wings drooping, before chasing off an intruder. Male courtship-feeds female before copulation. Nest usually in sandy, stone-free streamside bank, quarry, sandpit, peat cutting or earth bank, occasionally in hole in wall, rotten tree stump, concrete tunnel in canal bank, terrestrial termitarium, or burrow of Sand Martin (Riparia riparia) or water vole (Arvicola terrestris); record from N India of grass nest used almost certainly erroneous; most nests 90–180 cm above water, within 50 cm of top of bank, occasionally up to 500 m away from water; both sexes excavate, taking 7–12 days, tunnel straight, inclined to up to 30°, usually 50–90 cm long, being longer in sandy or loam soil than in stony or clay soil (range 15–137 cm), 5–7 cm wide, ending in nest-chamber 9–17 cm wide and 11 cm high; several nests may be partly excavated until one completed. Clutch 3–10 eggs, usually 6–7; both sexes incubate during day, but only female at night, often 1–2 eggs fail to hatch from the parents inability to cover them. Incubating bird sits motionless, facing tunnel, generally produces a pellet, which is broken up with the bill; incubation period 19–21 days, starting with last or penultimate egg, hatching synchronous; both adults feed young, initially bringing small fish 1–2 cm long, later larger fish; chicks up to 10 days old given fish up to 3 cm long in nest-chamber, older chicks fed fish 5–8 cm long in nest-tunnel, each chick fed every 45–50 minutes when small, every 20–25 minutes at 12 days, and every 15–20 minutes at 18 days; nest becomes fouled with faeces and food remains, and adults regularly bathe after feeding; fledging period 23–27 days or more; c. 4 days after leaving nest juveniles make first dives, sometimes becoming waterlogged and drowning, but soon independent and are driven from breeding territory by adults; female sometimes lays second clutch in adjacent nest-hole before previous brood fledged, and final brood may revert to original nest-hole. Breeding success 80% in Britain, 54% in Switzerland, 58% in Germany; mean lifetime fledgling production 9·8 for males and 9·7 for females in Germany, birds using preferred breeding sites having higher levels of lifetime production; nests preyed on by mustelids, including badgers (Meles meles) digging into nest-chamber, also by foxes (Vulpes vulpes). Mean annual mortality of 71–73% for adults and 78–79% for fledglings; longevity of 4 years and 11 months recorded in Netherlands and 4 years and 6 months in Britain.

Not globally threatened. Widely distributed and common in many regions, but sensitive to river pollution and river management. Population in W Europe estimated to be 10,000–15,000 pairs, and in whole of Europe 100,000 pairs; twice that number estimated for Asia and Melanesia. Mean density 6·6 birds/km in favoured sites in England; up to 8/km on channels and lagoons in mangroves in Peninsular Malaysia, where an estimated 8,000–10,000 birds use 800 km of coastline. Has increased in Sweden and Denmark in 20th century, but elsewhere in Europe some recent declines owing to river pollution. Monitoring from 1963 to 1989 in Britain showed significant levels of organochlorine pesticides (HEOD, DDE), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB’s) and mercury in livers, but these levels declined over the period. N populations greatly reduced in hard winters, and total of 16 pairs on 32 km of R Thames, in England, was reduced to a single pair by severe winter of 1962/63; in most areas recovery is rapid, but may be hindered by pollution in some places. Locally is persecuted by humans to protect fish stocks.