Green Imperial-Pigeon Ducula aenea Scientific name definitions

The Green Imperial-Pigeon has a broad distribution ranging from northern India and Nepal in the north, to the Philippines and Indonesia in the south. It is characterized by its vinous-gray head and underparts, metallic-green upperparts with some blue iridescence and bronzy reflections, and chestnut undertail coverts. Given such a widespread distribution, encompassing many islands, it is unsurprising that many subspecies have been described, although a good number have subsequently been synonymized, and most recent commentators have suggested that further rationalization may be desirable. On the other hand, several subspecies are comparatively distinctive, and the Nicobar Imperial-Pigeon (Ducula nicobarica) and Enggano Imperial-Pigeon (Ducula oenothorax) were recognized as full species. Local declines and even some insular extinctions have been reported, but in general, the Green Imperial-Pigeon remains a reasonably common and easily encountered species across large parts of its range, where it displays a broad affinity with all manner of wooded habitats at generally lower elevations (rarely exceeding 1,000 m), and a degree of acceptance of human-modified areas.

The Green Imperial-Pigeon is a medium-sized, sexually monochromatic Ducula, chiefly characterized by the pale vinous-gray head and underparts, dark metallic-green upperparts, wings, and tail, the latter without any pale bands, no contrast in the underwing in flight, dark chestnut undertail coverts, and (in some subspecies) a very striking chestnut nape patch.

There is some risk of confusion with several more restricted-range congenerics.

The Gray Imperial-Pigeon (Ducula pickeringii), which is found on islands off of northern Borneo, the extreme southern Philippines, and several islands between there and Sulawesi, is smaller and shows only a faint green gloss to the largely gray upperparts. Furthermore there is little, if no, contrast between the buffy-gray undertail coverts and the rest of the vinous-gray underparts, the underside of the tail is gray, and the cere is also gray.

The larger Elegant Imperial-Pigeon (Ducula concinna), which is a small-island specialist, has paler creamy-white underparts, head, and neck, slightly paler-colored undertail coverts, darker metallic-blue upperparts and tail (with hardly any green gloss), black underwing coverts, a yellow iris, and a swollen cere, which gives the effect of a very shallowly sloping forehead.

In mainland Asia, Sumatra, Borneo, and West Java, the Mountain Imperial-Pigeon (Ducula badia) is, as its name suggests, typically found at higher elevations than the present species, and it is also larger, with gray or deep maroon-colored upperparts, pale buff undertail coverts, and a broad gray tail-band contrasting with a black base to the rectrices.

On the Andaman Islands, the smaller Andaman Wood-Pigeon (Columba palumboides) is a potential confusion risk, especially at longer distances, although their flight is less ponderous and on less rounded wings. In closer views, the metallic green on the upperparts is restricted to the upper mantle and wing coverts fringes, while the tail lacks any metallic elements, and the throat, breast, and undertail coverts show a different pale-dark-pale contrast.

In areas of overlap, the Metallic Pigeon (Columba vitiensis), of Borneo, the Philippines, and the Lesser Sundas, has green fringes alone to the wing coverts, a much darker gray head and underparts (reaching as far as the undertail coverts), furrowed neck feathers, and orange iris, and much more conspicuous circum-orbital skin.

Green Imperial-Pigeon s have 10 full-length primaries (numbered distally from innermost, p1 to outermost, p10), 10 secondaries (numbered proximally from outermost s1 to innermost s7 and including 3 tertials, numbered distally from t1 to t3), and 12 rectrices (numbered distally, from innermost r1 to outermost r6 on each side of the tail). Geographic variation in appearance is moderate to extensive; the following applies to the widespread subspecies D. a. sylvatica (see Systematics: Geographic Variation for descriptions of other subspecies) and is based on the descriptions of Baptista et al. (1 Baptista, L. F., P. W. Trail, and H. M. Horblit (1997). Family Columbidae (pigeons and doves). In Handbook of the Birds of the World, Volume 4 (J. del Hoyo, A. Elliott and J. Sargatal, Editors), Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. pp. 60–243. Close ) and Wells (2 Wells, D. R. (1999). The Birds of the Thai-Malay Peninsula. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ), along with examination of images at the Macaulay Library. See Molts for molt and plumage terminology. Definitive appearance is assumed at Formative or Second Basic Plumage; sexes similar in all plumages although showing slight average differences in Definitive Basic Plumage (see below). See Higgins and Davies (3 Higgins, P. J., and S. J. J. F. Davies, Editors (1996). Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Volume 3. Pratincoles to Pigeons. Oxford University Press, Melbourne, Australia. Close ) and Pyle et al. (4 Pyle, P., K. Kayano, K. Tranquillo, K. Murphy, B. Wilcox, and N. Arcilla (2017). Manual for ageing and sexing landbirds of American Samoa, with notes on molt and breeding seasonality. The Institute for Bird Populations, Point Reyes Station, California, USA. Close ) for information on ageing of species within Ducula.

Natal Down

Undescribed in Green Imperial-Pigeon. In at least some other Ducula imperial-pigeons, natal down in hatchlings is pinkish tan.

Juvenile Plumage

Juvenile Plumage is similar to Definitive Basic Plumage but duller, the head and breast being grayer; back and upperwing coverts duller, sometimes with darker greenish fringes creating mottled or scaled appearance; pale terminal tail band only weakly developed. As in other Ducula imperial-pigeons, primaries, secondaries, and rectrices are narrower and more rounded at the tips than in later plumages (4 Pyle, P., K. Kayano, K. Tranquillo, K. Murphy, B. Wilcox, and N. Arcilla (2017). Manual for ageing and sexing landbirds of American Samoa, with notes on molt and breeding seasonality. The Institute for Bird Populations, Point Reyes Station, California, USA. Close ).

Formative Plumage

Formative Plumage resembles Definitive Basic Plumage but individuals may undergo incomplete Preformative Molts and can be identified by retained juvenile wing and/or tail feathers. Juvenile outer primaries, outer rectrices, and/or (especially) secondaries among s3-4 and s7-s9 can be retained, narrower, browner, and contrastingly worn, distinguishing formative birds from those in Definitive Basic Plumage with retained basic secondaries (see below).

Definitive Basic Plumage

Head, neck and underparts pale gray-pink, some creamy-white feathers around base of bill forming an inconspicuous band; lores and crown generally more vinous gray, the nape and neck are somewhat grayer, and the chin and base of the moustachial area whitish, becoming pale pinkish on the throat. Upperparts (including back, scapulars, and lesser and median coverts) iridescent green with bluish or bronzy reflections (often reflecting different states of wear), becoming less glossy green over the back and uppertail coverts; rectrices blackish glossed dark blue-green from above, more prominently on the central pair (r1), and blackish brown from below. The greater coverts and tertials are rather less glossy green, and possess a gray cast, more so when worn. Primaries and secondaries blackish, with slight green or blackish-green iridescence on the outer webs of the secondaries from above. The vent, thighs, and femoral feathering are all rather paler and grayer than the rest of the underparts and the undertail coverts are dark chestnut. The underwing is pale gray, becoming darker and browner on the underside of the flight feathers. Definitive basic Females average slightly duller than Males, the the head and breast with less pink and the upperparts duller green, but overlap in plumages between the sexes appears to occur.

Definitive Basic Plumage is characterized by broader, more truncate, and fresher flight feathers than in Juvenile Plumage. Primaries show molt clines from more worn inner feathers to fresher outer feathers, and may also show two or more sets of feathers reflecting Staffelmauser or stepwise molt (see Molts), the latter indicating Definitive Basic Plumage as opposed to Formative Plumage (4 Pyle, P., K. Kayano, K. Tranquillo, K. Murphy, B. Wilcox, and N. Arcilla (2017). Manual for ageing and sexing landbirds of American Samoa, with notes on molt and breeding seasonality. The Institute for Bird Populations, Point Reyes Station, California, USA. Close ). Secondaries likewise show fresher feathers medially, reflecting molt sequence, or may show mixed patterns of fresh and worn basic feathers, showing slight contrasts in wear but not shape, following Staffelmauser.

General

Molt and plumage terminology follows Humphrey and Parkes (5 Humphrey, P. S., and K. C. Parkes (1959). An approach to the study of molts and plumages. Auk 76(1):1–31. Close ) as modified by Howell et al. (6 Howell, S. N. G., C. Corben, P. Pyle, and D. I. Rogers (2003). The first basic problem: a review of molt and plumage homologies. Condor 105:635–653. Close ). Under this nomenclature, terminology is based on evolution of molts along ancestral lineages of birds from ecdysis (molts) of reptiles, rather than on molts relative to breeding season, location, or time of the year (see 7 Pyle, P. (2022). Identification Guide to North American Birds. Part I, Second Edition. Slate Creek Press, Forest Knolls, CA, USA. Close ,8 Pyle, P. (2022). Defining moults in migratory birds: a sequence-based approach. Journal of Avian Biology 2022(5):e02958. Close for more information). As in other Ducula imperial-pigeons, Green Imperial-Pigeon exhibits a Complex Basic Strategy (cf. 6 Howell, S. N. G., C. Corben, P. Pyle, and D. I. Rogers (2003). The first basic problem: a review of molt and plumage homologies. Condor 105:635–653. Close , 9 Howell, S. N. G. (2010). Molt in North American Birds. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, Boston, MA and New York, NY, USA. Close ), including incomplete-to-complete preformative and definitive prebasic molts but no prealternate molts (3 Higgins, P. J., and S. J. J. F. Davies, Editors (1996). Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Volume 3. Pratincoles to Pigeons. Oxford University Press, Melbourne, Australia. Close ,4 Pyle, P., K. Kayano, K. Tranquillo, K. Murphy, B. Wilcox, and N. Arcilla (2017). Manual for ageing and sexing landbirds of American Samoa, with notes on molt and breeding seasonality. The Institute for Bird Populations, Point Reyes Station, California, USA. Close ).

Prejuvenile (First Prebasic) Molt

Complete, in the nest. No information. Presumably completed or near-completed by fledging.

Preformative Molt

Variation in extent not well documented in Green Imperial-Pigeon but examination of Macaulay images suggests that it can be incomplete or complete as in other Ducula imperial pigeons (4 Pyle, P., K. Kayano, K. Tranquillo, K. Murphy, B. Wilcox, and N. Arcilla (2017). Manual for ageing and sexing landbirds of American Samoa, with notes on molt and breeding seasonality. The Institute for Bird Populations, Point Reyes Station, California, USA. Close ). When incomplete, outer primaries (among p9-p10), more frequently 1-5 secondaries among s3-s4 and s7-s9, and one or more juvenile rectrices may be expected to be retained.

Definitive Prebasic Molt

Incomplete to complete. In the Peninsular Malaysia, molt of wing feathers occurs between February and October (10 Wells, D. R. (1999). The Birds of the Thai-Malay Peninsula. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ). Primaries replaced distally (p1 to p10), secondaries replaced proximally from s1 and distally from the tertials (often bilaterally from the second tertial, t2), and rectrices generally replaced distally (r1 to r6) on each side of tail, with some variation in rectrix sequence possible. Following incomplete molts, Staffelmauser or stepwise molt (see 11 Pyle, P. (2006). Staffelmauser and other adaptive strategies for wing molt in larger birds. Western Birds 37(3):179–185. Close ), in which two or more waves of primaries can molt simultaneously, can result in some individuals, as in other Ducula imperial-pigeons (12 Marchant, S., and P. J. Higgins, eds. (1993). Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Vol. 2. Oxford University Press, Melbourne. Close , 10 Wells, D. R. (1999). The Birds of the Thai-Malay Peninsula. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Academic Press, London, UK. Close , 4 Pyle, P., K. Kayano, K. Tranquillo, K. Murphy, B. Wilcox, and N. Arcilla (2017). Manual for ageing and sexing landbirds of American Samoa, with notes on molt and breeding seasonality. The Institute for Bird Populations, Point Reyes Station, California, USA. Close ).

Bill

In adults, bluish gray or lead gray with a red or purplish cere (10 Wells, D. R. (1999). The Birds of the Thai-Malay Peninsula. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Academic Press, London, UK. Close , 13 Gibbs, D., E. Barnes, and J. Cox (2001). Pigeons and Doves: A Guide to the Pigeons and Doves of the World. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ).

Iris and Facial Skin

Iris is dark brown to red with lilac (10 Wells, D. R. (1999). The Birds of the Thai-Malay Peninsula. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Academic Press, London, UK. Close , 13 Gibbs, D., E. Barnes, and J. Cox (2001). Pigeons and Doves: A Guide to the Pigeons and Doves of the World. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ). In adults, outer ring and crimson orbital skin, duller and browner in juveniles.

Tarsus and Toes

In adults, dark pinkish red, or dull purple red (10 Wells, D. R. (1999). The Birds of the Thai-Malay Peninsula. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Academic Press, London, UK. Close , 13 Gibbs, D., E. Barnes, and J. Cox (2001). Pigeons and Doves: A Guide to the Pigeons and Doves of the World. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ); paler pink in juveniles.

Linear Measurements

Overall length 48–48 cm (male), 40.5–44.0 cm (female) (13 Gibbs, D., E. Barnes, and J. Cox (2001). Pigeons and Doves: A Guide to the Pigeons and Doves of the World. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ), but for males Rasmussen and Anderton (14 Rasmussen, P. C., and J. C. Anderton (2005). Birds of South Asia. The Ripley Guide. Volumes 1 and 2. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA and Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Close ) gave 38–39 cm (D. a. sylvatica), 34–36 cm (D. a. pusilla), and 35–37 cm (D. a. andamanica), while for females their respective values were 37–38 cm (D. a. sylvatica), 34–35 cm (D. a. pusilla), and 34–35 cm (D. a. andamanica).

Linear measurements (in mm, from Gibbs et al. 13 Gibbs, D., E. Barnes, and J. Cox (2001). Pigeons and Doves: A Guide to the Pigeons and Doves of the World. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ):

Mass

365.0–644.2 g (15 Ripley, S. D., and D. S. Rabor (1958). Notes on a collection of birds from Mindoro Island, Philippines. Peabody Museum of Natural History, Yale University, Bulletin 13:1–83. Close , 16 Rand, A. L., and D. S. Rabor (1960). Birds of the Philippine Islands: Siquijor, Mount Malindang, Bohol, and Samar. Fieldiana Zoology 35(7):221–441. Close , 10 Wells, D. R. (1999). The Birds of the Thai-Malay Peninsula. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Academic Press, London, UK. Close , 13 Gibbs, D., E. Barnes, and J. Cox (2001). Pigeons and Doves: A Guide to the Pigeons and Doves of the World. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close , 17 Dunning, J. B., Jr. (2008). CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses. Second edition. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA. Close ).

Often considered conspecific with Enggano Imperial-Pigeon (Ducula oenothorax), though formerly considered specifically distinct (see 18 van Marle, J. G., and K. H. Voous (1988). The Birds of Sumatra. An Annotated Check-list. B.O.U. Check-list 10. British Ornithologists’ Union, Tring, UK. Close ). In their assessment of the taxa, del Hoyo and Collar (19 del Hoyo, J., and N. J. Collar (2014). HBW and BirdLife International Illustrated Checklist of the Birds of the World. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Close ), using the Tobias et al. (20 Tobias, J. A., N. Seddon, C. N. Spottiswoode, J. D. Pilgrim, L. D. C. Fishpool, and N. J. Collar (2010). Quantitative criteria for species delimitation. Ibis 152(4):724–746. Close ) criteria, from which the numbers in brackets are derived, found that Ducula aenea differs in its gray versus purplish-pink [3]; chestnut versus green vent [3]; and duller, more emerald-green and bronzy reflectant upperparts [1]. Additional work is needed to confirm the taxonomic assessment of Ducula oenothorax, but the morphological differences between these two taxa are as strong as those in other undisputed species pairs in Ducula.

Subspecies paulina also sometimes considered a separate species, differing in its large, pale vinous-rufous nuchal patch (from hindneck to mantle and neck-sides, and connecting vaguely to postocular area), and slightly more pinkish-buffy face than other taxa.

Most described variation revolves around rather subtle differences in size, intensity of the metallic gloss above, the shade of gray on the head and underparts, and the extent of the paler throat, with more striking chestnut-naped forms in the northern Philippines and on Sulawesi, and an unusually darker saturated taxon off western Sumatra.

Owing to confusion over type locality of nominate aenea, previously thought to be in Malaysia but later corrected to Philippines (21 Stresemann, E. (1952). On the birds collected by Pierre Poivre in Canton, Manila, India and Madagascar (1751–1756). Ibis 94(3):499–523. Close ), population now listed under polia was formerly included under aenea; proposed taxa chalybura and glaucocauda are synonyms of aenea (22 Parkes, K.C. (1965). A small collection of birds from the island of Buad, Philippines. Annals of the Carnegie Museum. 38(2):49–67. Close ). Subspecies variation not altogether clear: proposed form kwangtungensis (23 Zhou Yuyuan (1955). [On a new Green Imperial Pigeon Muscadivora aenea kwantungensis from the district of Lao-fao-shan, Guangdong, China]. Acta Sci. Nat. Univ. Sunyatsen (Nat. Sci. Ed.) 3:128–130. In Chinese. Close ) (southern China) included in sylvatica, while proposed taxa mista (Simeulue), babiensis (Babi and Lasia Islands, off southern Simeulue), and vicinus (Batu and Mentawai Islands; note spelling 24 David, N. and M. Gosselin (2011). Gender agreement of avian species-group names under Article 31.2.2 of the ICZN Code. Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club 131(2):103–115. Close ) included in consobrina (25 Ripley, S.D. (1944). The bird fauna of the West Sumatra islands. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard 94(8):307–430. Close , 18 van Marle, J. G., and K. H. Voous (1988). The Birds of Sumatra. An Annotated Check-list. B.O.U. Check-list 10. British Ornithologists’ Union, Tring, UK. Close ); pallidinucha (Tobea Island, off SE Sulawesi), pulchella (Togian Islands), sulana (Sula Islands) and intercedens (Peleng, in Banggai Islands) are all included in paulina (26 White, C.M.N. and Bruce, M.D. (1986). The Birds of Wallacea (Sulawesi, the Moluccas & Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia). An Annotated Check-list. B.O.U. Check-list 7. British Ornithologists’ Union, London. Close ), although it has recently been suggested that pulchella may, after all, represent a valid taxon (it shows a brown shoulder) (27 Rheindt, F. E., D. M. Prawiradilaga, Suparno, H. Ashari, and P. R. Wilton (2014). New and significant island records, range extensions and elevational extensions of birds in eastern Sulawesi, its nearby satellites, and Ternate. Treubia 41:61–90. Close ); further analysis may reduce still further the number of subspecies accepted (19 del Hoyo, J., and N. J. Collar (2014). HBW and BirdLife International Illustrated Checklist of the Birds of the World. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Close ).

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EBIRD GROUP (POLYTYPIC)

Green Imperial-Pigeon (Green) Ducula aenea [aenea Group]

Available illustrations of subspecies in this group

• eBird map
• 361 photos
• 44 recordings

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SUBSPECIES

Ducula aenea sylvatica Scientific name definitions

Distribution

North India through Nepal and Bangladesh to southern China (including Hainan Island), south to southern Myanmar (central Tenasserim), northern and southern Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia.

Identification Summary

Described under Plumages. Very similar to D. a. pusilla, but larger. Birds on Hainan said to average smaller (13 Gibbs, D., E. Barnes, and J. Cox (2001). Pigeons and Doves: A Guide to the Pigeons and Doves of the World. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ). Birds from India, tail of male 155–163 mm, tail of female 145–150 mm (14 Rasmussen, P. C., and J. C. Anderton (2005). Birds of South Asia. The Ripley Guide. Volumes 1 and 2. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA and Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Close ).

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SUBSPECIES

Ducula aenea pusilla Scientific name definitions

Distribution

Southern India and Sri Lanka.

Identification Summary

Hardly differs from D. a. sylvatica, except in being smaller (wing 200–220 mm, versus 223–250 mm) (13 Gibbs, D., E. Barnes, and J. Cox (2001). Pigeons and Doves: A Guide to the Pigeons and Doves of the World. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ). Tail of male 141–146 mm, tail of female 143 mm (14 Rasmussen, P. C., and J. C. Anderton (2005). Birds of South Asia. The Ripley Guide. Volumes 1 and 2. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA and Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Close ). Considered by some authors (13 Gibbs, D., E. Barnes, and J. Cox (2001). Pigeons and Doves: A Guide to the Pigeons and Doves of the World. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ) to be better treated as a synonym of the previous subspecies.

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SUBSPECIES

Ducula aenea andamanica Scientific name definitions

Distribution

Andaman Islands.

Identification Summary

Compared to D. a. sylvatica and D. a. pusilla, has slightly more white around the face (chin and central throat) and a darker vent. Also said to be smaller than D. a. sylvatica (wing 229–236 mm) with metallic blue and even bronze reflections on the upperparts. Tail of male 145–150 mm, tail of female 145–150 mm (14 Rasmussen, P. C., and J. C. Anderton (2005). Birds of South Asia. The Ripley Guide. Volumes 1 and 2. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA and Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Close ).

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SUBSPECIES

Ducula aenea consobrina Scientific name definitions

Systematics History

Some modern authorities prefer to maintain the subspecies D. a. babiensis and D. a. vicinus, based on the former’s larger size, and latter’s smaller size and darker pink head and breast (28 Eaton, J. A., B. van Balen, N. W. Brickle, and F. E. Rheindt (2016). Birds of the Indonesian Archipelago: Greater Sundas and Wallacea. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Close ).

Distribution

Islands off western Sumatra (excluding Enggano).

Identification Summary

Very like D. a. sylvatica, but with a larger bill, the white band around the bill reduced and suffused gray, and the head and underparts less obviously vinous. Also reported to have darker chestnut vent and more sharply delineated border between neck and back compared to neighboring subspecies (28 Eaton, J. A., B. van Balen, N. W. Brickle, and F. E. Rheindt (2016). Birds of the Indonesian Archipelago: Greater Sundas and Wallacea. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Close ). Wing 225–248 mm; bill 24 mm (13 Gibbs, D., E. Barnes, and J. Cox (2001). Pigeons and Doves: A Guide to the Pigeons and Doves of the World. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ).

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SUBSPECIES

Ducula aenea polia Scientific name definitions

Distribution

Central and southern Malay Peninsula, the Greater Sundas, and the Lesser Sundas (east to Alor).

Identification Summary

Very similar to D. a. sylvatica, but green upperparts have stronger bronzy reflections, with a whiter chin and throat, more vinous ear-coverts, and remaining underparts are very slightly paler, with a less intense pinkish wash. Wing 232–247 mm. There is evidence of widespread intergradation with D. a. sylvatica (13 Gibbs, D., E. Barnes, and J. Cox (2001). Pigeons and Doves: A Guide to the Pigeons and Doves of the World. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ).

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SUBSPECIES

Ducula aenea palawanensis Scientific name definitions

Distribution

Western and southwest Philippines (the Calamian Group, Linapacan, Palawan, Dumaran, and Balabac), and Banggi (off northeast Borneo).

Identification Summary

Reportedly differs from D. a. polia in having a darker and bluer tail (but this feature is also said to be very variable), the chin and throat are often darker (more vinous-gray), and the gray hindneck is more clearly demarcated from the green mantle. Even more similar to the nominate (which see). Wing 241–253 mm.

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SUBSPECIES

Ducula aenea fugaensis Scientific name definitions

Distribution

Northern Philippines (on Calayan, Fuga, and Camiguin Norte).

Identification Summary

This subspecies is like D. a. nuchalis, but larger (wing 265 mm, versus 226–237 mm), the nape and ear-coverts are chestnut, and the mantle has slightly stronger coppery reflections (29 Hachisuka, M. (1930). Contributions to the birds of the Philippines. No. 2. Ornithological Society of Japan, Supplementary Publication 14:141–222. Close ).

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SUBSPECIES

Ducula aenea aenea Scientific name definitions

Distribution

Philippines (except the far north, and southern and southwestern islands).

Identification Summary

Similar to D. a. polia, but has the gray hindneck more sharply demarcated from the green mantle, the tail duller gray-green without any blue reflections, and the chin and throat darker, being more suffused with pinkish gray; and even more like D. a. palawanensis from which it differs solely by having a duller green tail. Wing 231–239 mm.

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SUBSPECIES

Ducula aenea intermedia Scientific name definitions

Distribution

Talaud Islands and Sangihe Islands, north of Sulawesi (Indonesia).

Identification Summary

Separated from the nominate subspecies by its dull metallic blue-and-green mantle with a gray wash (thus appearing less bright and iridescent), black undertail (not brown), and dusky-red legs and feet (not red). Compared to D. a. paulina, it lacks a rusty nape patch, has duller less metallic upperparts, dark mahogany (not dark chestnut) undertail-coverts, and a black underside to the tail, as well as being larger (wing 256–271 mm, versus 214–234 mm in D. a. paulina) (13 Gibbs, D., E. Barnes, and J. Cox (2001). Pigeons and Doves: A Guide to the Pigeons and Doves of the World. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ).

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EBIRD GROUP (MONOTYPIC)

Green Imperial-Pigeon (Maroon-naped) Ducula aenea nuchalis Scientific name definitions

• eBird map
• 2 photos
• 0 recordings

Distribution

Northern Philippines (northern Luzon).

Identification Summary

Distinctive versus most other subspecies by its purplish-maroon or purplish-chestnut nape patch, as well as having much more heavily bronzed or coppery-glossed upperparts, and the tail is duller green (compared to D. a. polia, but like the nominate). Wing 226–237 mm. There be some introgression with the nominate (13 Gibbs, D., E. Barnes, and J. Cox (2001). Pigeons and Doves: A Guide to the Pigeons and Doves of the World. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ).

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EBIRD GROUP (MONOTYPIC)

Green Imperial-Pigeon (Rufous-naped) Ducula aenea paulina Scientific name definitions

• eBird map
• 79 photos
• 22 recordings

Distribution

Indonesia, on Sulawesi (and associated islands off the northeast coast), and the Togian Islands, Banggai Islands, and Sula Islands.

Identification Summary

Like D. a. nuchalis, has a prominent rusty nape patch (but larger, lighter, and much brighter than that of D. a. nuchalis) and rich green (strongly metallic and thus iridescent) upperparts , although these are not strongly demarcated from the gray hindneck, and has marginally darker underparts, especially on the foreneck. Wing 214–234 mm; those on the Sula Islands, sometimes separated as subspecies D. a. sulana, have wing 205–216 mm (13 Gibbs, D., E. Barnes, and J. Cox (2001). Pigeons and Doves: A Guide to the Pigeons and Doves of the World. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ).

Relationships are not well-resolved; likely closely related to the formerly conspecific Enggano Imperial-Pigeon (Ducula oenothorax). Considered to form a species-group with Spectacled Imperial-Pigeon (Ducula perspicillata), Seram Imperial-Pigeon (Ducula neglecta), Elegant Imperial-Pigeon (Ducula concinna). In a molecular phylogeny of the genus Ducula, Ducula aenea was found to be sister to a clade that included Island Imperial-Pigeon (Ducula pistrinaria), Micronesian Imperial-Pigeon (Ducula oceanica), Pacific Imperial-Pigeon (Ducula pacifica), and Red-knobbed Imperial-Pigeon (Ducula rubricera) (30 Cibois, A., J-C. Thibault, C. Bonillo, C. E. Filardi, and E. Pasquet (2017). Phylogeny and biogeography of the imperial pigeons (Aves: Columbidae) in the Pacific Ocean. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 110:19-26 Close ), although none of the taxa with which it is considered to form a species group with were included in the study.

Nothing known.

Widespread across mainland South Asia, in western, southern, and eastern India, and Sri Lanka, east to southern China, Indochina, but absent from much of Thailand, and south again through the Thai-Malay Peninsula, thence through the Greater Sundas and Borneo, the Lesser Sundas east as far as Alor, Sulawesi, and north throughout the Philippines.

Extralimital Records

Possible sight record on Timor (Indonesia) (31 Mayr, E. (1944). The birds of Timor and Sumba. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 83(2):123–194. Close ).

None definitely known, but there have perhaps been some local extinctions in Philippines and Indonesia (13 Gibbs, D., E. Barnes, and J. Cox (2001). Pigeons and Doves: A Guide to the Pigeons and Doves of the World. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ).

Forests, including both primary and secondary evergreen, and monsoon forests. Also coastal scrub, coconut groves (32 Indrawan, M., S. Somadikarta, J. Supriatna, M. D. Bruce, Sunarto and G. Djanubudiman (2006). The birds of the Togian Islands, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. Forktail 22:7–22. Close ), mixed gardens, mangroves (14 Rasmussen, P. C., and J. C. Anderton (2005). Birds of South Asia. The Ripley Guide. Volumes 1 and 2. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA and Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Close , 28 Eaton, J. A., B. van Balen, N. W. Brickle, and F. E. Rheindt (2016). Birds of the Indonesian Archipelago: Greater Sundas and Wallacea. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Close ), nipah palm swamps (33 Mann, C. F. (2008). The Birds of Borneo. An Annotated Checklist. B.O.U. Checklist 23. British Ornithologists’ Union and British Ornithologists’ Club, Peterborough, UK. Close ), open country with scattered trees, savanna woodland, and second growth. Mainly found in the lowlands; in India reported up to c. 300 m, occasionally to 600 m (14 Rasmussen, P. C., and J. C. Anderton (2005). Birds of South Asia. The Ripley Guide. Volumes 1 and 2. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA and Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Close ) (in Sri Lanka breeds to 500 m 34 Phillips, W. W. A. (1978). Annotated Checklist of the Birds of Ceylon (Sri Lanka). Revised edition. Wildlife and Nature Protection Society of Sri Lanka and Ceylon Bird Club, Battaramulla and Colombo, Sri Lanka. Close ); in Greater and Lesser Sundas reported to 1,000 m (28 Eaton, J. A., B. van Balen, N. W. Brickle, and F. E. Rheindt (2016). Birds of the Indonesian Archipelago: Greater Sundas and Wallacea. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Close ) (also on Taliabu, Sula Islands 35 Rheindt, F. E. (2010). New biogeographic records for the avifauna of Taliabu (Sula Islands, Indonesia), with preliminary documentation of two previously undiscovered taxa. Bulletin of the British Ornithologists’ Club 130(1):33–51. Close ), or 1,050 m on Borneo (33 Mann, C. F. (2008). The Birds of Borneo. An Annotated Checklist. B.O.U. Checklist 23. British Ornithologists’ Union and British Ornithologists’ Club, Peterborough, UK. Close ), in Philippines to 1,125 m (36 Dickinson, E. C., R. S. Kennedy, and K. C. Parkes (1991). The Birds of the Philippines. An Annotated Check-list. B.O.U. Check-list 12. British Ornithologists’ Union, Tring, U.K. Close ), and to 1,300 m on Hainan (southeast China) (37 Lee Kwok Shing, Chan Bosco Pui Lok, and Li Shi-ning (2005). Birds of Yinggeling, Hainan Island, China: with notes on new and important records. BirdingASIA 4:68–79. Close ).

Apparently resident, although nocturnal dispersal has been reported in Peninsular Malaysia (10 Wells, D. R. (1999). The Birds of the Thai-Malay Peninsula. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ). In southern Vietnam, where occurs mainly in mountains, only descends to lowland areas when these provide a rich food source. In Sri Lanka, reported to have regular roosting trees, sometimes located several km from feeding areas. Inter-island movements reported in some areas.

Food Capture and Consumption

Often seen singly, in pairs, or small groups of up to five individuals (13 Gibbs, D., E. Barnes, and J. Cox (2001). Pigeons and Doves: A Guide to the Pigeons and Doves of the World. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ), exceptionally of up to 50 or 60 birds (38 Davidson, P.J., Lucking, R.S., Stones, A.J., Bean, N.J., Raharjaningtrah, W. and Banjaransari, H. (1991). Report on an ornithological survey of Taliabu, Indonesia. Unpublished report to BirdLife International. Close , 39 Goes, F. (1999). Notes on selected bird species in Cambodia. Forktail 15:25–27. Close ), regularly with other large pigeons, generally feeding in the upper canopy.

Major Food Items

Frugivorous, taking a large variety of fruits and berries, typically up to 40 mm in diameter (13 Gibbs, D., E. Barnes, and J. Cox (2001). Pigeons and Doves: A Guide to the Pigeons and Doves of the World. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ), and on Sulawesi involving at least 33 species belonging to 14 families (40 Walker, J. S. (2007). Dietary specialization and fruit availability among frugivorous birds on Sulawesi. Ibis 149(2):345–356. Close ). Wild figs (Ficus) and nutmegs (Myristica) are reportedly favorite foods (15 Ripley, S. D., and D. S. Rabor (1958). Notes on a collection of birds from Mindoro Island, Philippines. Peabody Museum of Natural History, Yale University, Bulletin 13:1–83. Close , 41 Ali, S., and S. D. Ripley (1987). Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan, together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, and Sri Lanka. 2nd edition. Oxford University Press, Delhi, Oxford, and New York. Close , 10 Wells, D. R. (1999). The Birds of the Thai-Malay Peninsula. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Academic Press, London, UK. Close , 13 Gibbs, D., E. Barnes, and J. Cox (2001). Pigeons and Doves: A Guide to the Pigeons and Doves of the World. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ); other recorded items include the buds of mangroves (Avicennia).

Drinking

At least in India, regularly descends to ground to drink water, or to ingest salt-rich soil (42 Kirkpatrick, K.M. (1960). The Imperial Green Pigeon, Muscadivora aenea (Linnaeus), on salt-licks in Orissa. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 57(3):662–663. Close ).

Vocal Array

A rather vocal species (43 Goodwin, D. (1983). Pigeon and Doves of the World. 3rd edition. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, USA. Close , 13 Gibbs, D., E. Barnes, and J. Cox (2001). Pigeons and Doves: A Guide to the Pigeons and Doves of the World. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ). Most common vocalization is a low-pitched, growling or purring, bisyllabic rhu-rrhuuu with the emphasis on the final syllable and typically preceded (or followed) by a shorter and softer note (either can be variable in length, or absent), sometimes apparently given in duets (44 Smythies, B. E. (1981). The Birds of Borneo. Third edition. The Sabah Society and the Malayan Nature Society, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Close , 43 Goodwin, D. (1983). Pigeon and Doves of the World. 3rd edition. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, USA. Close , 45 Lekagul, B., and P. D. Round (1991). A Guide to the Birds of Thailand. Saha Karn Bhaet Co., Bangkok, Thailand. Close ) involving burry long notes being quickly followed by a much clearer one (14 Rasmussen, P. C., and J. C. Anderton (2005). Birds of South Asia. The Ripley Guide. Volumes 1 and 2. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA and Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Close ). One variation involves a similar-sounding rhythmic rhu-rhurhurhurhu, ending with a descending series of cooing notes. Also some geographical variation, e.g., in Indian Subcontinent region, very deep and growling on Andamans, where also highest at end (46 Tikader, B. K. (1984). Birds of Andaman & Nicobar Islands. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. Close ), and noticeably higher-pitched overall in Sri Lanka (14 Rasmussen, P. C., and J. C. Anderton (2005). Birds of South Asia. The Ripley Guide. Volumes 1 and 2. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA and Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Close ), while a deep resounding wuck-wuck-woor or wuck-woor-woor-woor-woor that ends in laughing-like sound, and perhaps represents a more excited version of a typical advertising call, has also been heard in India (41 Ali, S., and S. D. Ripley (1987). Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan, together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, and Sri Lanka. 2nd edition. Oxford University Press, Delhi, Oxford, and New York. Close ); on Sulawesi, also gives a questioning woohoo woo, the first part upwardly inflected (47 van den Berg, A. B., and C. A. W. Bosman (1986). Supplementary notes on some birds of Lore Lindu Reserve, central Sulawesi. Forktail 1:7–13. Close ); and on Palawan (in the southwest Philippines), a similar deep-sounding ah-hoo-oo (48 Hachisuka, M. (1932). The Birds of the Philippine Islands, with Notes on the Mammal Fauna. Vol. 1. Part 2. Witherby, London. Close ). Birds in mainland South-East have songs that in pitch are intermediate between those of Sri Lanka and the Andamans (14 Rasmussen, P. C., and J. C. Anderton (2005). Birds of South Asia. The Ripley Guide. Volumes 1 and 2. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA and Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Close ). Also single hoots, either with a sleepy growling or more pure tonal quality, lasting c. 1 second and repeated at intervals of c. 6 seconds.

Flight

Flight swift and powerful, usually well above the canopy.

Roosting

In Sri Lanka, reported to have regular roosting trees, sometimes located several km from feeding areas.

Courtship, Copulation, and Pair Bond

Male performs spectacular display-flight, commencing in normal flight, then suddenly beats wings vigorously and shoots vertically upwards over c. 2 m, before stalling momentarily with wings flexed and neck outstretched, as if about to tip over backwards, finally turning sharply and diving down, then resuming normal flight, or rises from trees to perform similar flight (44 Smythies, B. E. (1981). The Birds of Borneo. Third edition. The Sabah Society and the Malayan Nature Society, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Close ).

Degree of Sociality

Often seen singly, in pairs, or small groups of up to five individuals (13 Gibbs, D., E. Barnes, and J. Cox (2001). Pigeons and Doves: A Guide to the Pigeons and Doves of the World. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ), exceptionally of up to 50 or 60 birds (38 Davidson, P.J., Lucking, R.S., Stones, A.J., Bean, N.J., Raharjaningtrah, W. and Banjaransari, H. (1991). Report on an ornithological survey of Taliabu, Indonesia. Unpublished report to BirdLife International. Close , 39 Goes, F. (1999). Notes on selected bird species in Cambodia. Forktail 15:25–27. Close ), regularly with other large pigeons.

In India, breeds December–June (March–June in north, December–May in south, including Sri Lanka, and the Andaman Islands 14 Rasmussen, P. C., and J. C. Anderton (2005). Birds of South Asia. The Ripley Guide. Volumes 1 and 2. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA and Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Close ); in Peninsular Malaysia, it breeds in mid September and January–March (10 Wells, D. R. (1999). The Birds of the Thai-Malay Peninsula. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ); on Sumatra it breeds in most months, but mainly December–June (18 van Marle, J. G., and K. H. Voous (1988). The Birds of Sumatra. An Annotated Check-list. B.O.U. Check-list 10. British Ornithologists’ Union, Tring, UK. Close ); on West Java, it breeds in January (49 Hellebrekers, W. P. J., and A. Hoogerwerf (1967). A further contribution to our zoological knowledge of the island of Java (Indonesia). Zoologische Verhandelingen Leiden 88:1–64. Close ); on Borneo, it breeds in August, December, and January (33 Mann, C. F. (2008). The Birds of Borneo. An Annotated Checklist. B.O.U. Checklist 23. British Ornithologists’ Union and British Ornithologists’ Club, Peterborough, UK. Close ); in the Lesser Sundas, it is said to be during April–July (26 White, C.M.N. and Bruce, M.D. (1986). The Birds of Wallacea (Sulawesi, the Moluccas & Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia). An Annotated Check-list. B.O.U. Check-list 7. British Ornithologists’ Union, London. Close , 13 Gibbs, D., E. Barnes, and J. Cox (2001). Pigeons and Doves: A Guide to the Pigeons and Doves of the World. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ), but on Flores, eggs were recorded in January, February, May, June, July, and October, and a well-feathered nestling in June, suggesting little seasonality, although there was a clear peak in May (50 Mees, G. F. (2006). The avifauna of Flores (Lesser Sunda Islands). Zoologische Mededeelingen Leiden 80(3):1–261. Close ); and nests with eggs have been recorded on Negros (in the Philippines) in March–May (36 Dickinson, E. C., R. S. Kennedy, and K. C. Parkes (1991). The Birds of the Philippines. An Annotated Check-list. B.O.U. Check-list 12. British Ornithologists’ Union, Tring, U.K. Close , 51 Kennedy, R. S., P. C. Gonzales, E. C. Dickinson, H. C. Miranda, and T. H. Fisher (2000). A Guide to the Birds of the Philippines. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ).

Site Characteristics

Nest is placed in a leafy sapling or understorey tree, usually less than 10 m up or 3–18 m above ground in mangrove forest on Tioman Island, off the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia (10 Wells, D. R. (1999). The Birds of the Thai-Malay Peninsula. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ), but also reported 25–30 m above ground in Philippines (36 Dickinson, E. C., R. S. Kennedy, and K. C. Parkes (1991). The Birds of the Philippines. An Annotated Check-list. B.O.U. Check-list 12. British Ornithologists’ Union, Tring, U.K. Close , 51 Kennedy, R. S., P. C. Gonzales, E. C. Dickinson, H. C. Miranda, and T. H. Fisher (2000). A Guide to the Birds of the Philippines. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ).

Construction Process

Both sexes are involved in nestbuilding.

Structure and Composition

Nest a slight platform of loosely arranged twigs.

Size

44.8–52.4 × 32.5–33.8 mm (D. a. polia, Flores 50 Mees, G. F. (2006). The avifauna of Flores (Lesser Sunda Islands). Zoologische Mededeelingen Leiden 80(3):1–261. Close ).

Color and Surface Texture

Slightly glossy egg (50 Mees, G. F. (2006). The avifauna of Flores (Lesser Sunda Islands). Zoologische Mededeelingen Leiden 80(3):1–261. Close ).

Clutch Size

Usually one white, rarely two.

Incubation Period

Unknown.

Parental Behavior

Incubation by both sexes.

The Green Imperial-Pigeon is widespread and remains common in much of its extensive range, e.g., in many parts of Sri Lanka, the Greater Sundas (28 Eaton, J. A., B. van Balen, N. W. Brickle, and F. E. Rheindt (2016). Birds of the Indonesian Archipelago: Greater Sundas and Wallacea. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Close ), Philippines (36 Dickinson, E. C., R. S. Kennedy, and K. C. Parkes (1991). The Birds of the Philippines. An Annotated Check-list. B.O.U. Check-list 12. British Ornithologists’ Union, Tring, U.K. Close ), and northern Sulawesi, as well as some of its satellite archipelagos (32 Indrawan, M., S. Somadikarta, J. Supriatna, M. D. Bruce, Sunarto and G. Djanubudiman (2006). The birds of the Togian Islands, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. Forktail 22:7–22. Close ); also locally on Simeulue Island, off Sumatra (18 van Marle, J. G., and K. H. Voous (1988). The Birds of Sumatra. An Annotated Check-list. B.O.U. Check-list 10. British Ornithologists’ Union, Tring, UK. Close ). However, in India, the species is considered very local in both the Western Ghats and the South Assam Hills (14 Rasmussen, P. C., and J. C. Anderton (2005). Birds of South Asia. The Ripley Guide. Volumes 1 and 2. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA and Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Close ). It is generally the commonest Ducula within its Wallacean range, from Sulawesi and the Banggai and Sula Islands to the Lesser Sundas (52 Coates, B. J., and K. D. Bishop (1997). A Guide to the Birds of Wallacea: Sulawesi, The Moluccas and Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia. Dove Publications, Alderley, Queensland, Australia. Close ), despite effects of sometimes excessive hunting in some areas within this range, e.g., on Alor (53 Trainor, C. R., P. Verbelen, and R. E. Johnstone (2012). The avifauna of Alor and Pantar, Lesser Sundas, Indonesia. Forktail 28:77–92. Close ), and can survive in degraded habitats (54 Rheindt, F. E., F. Verbelen, D. D. Putra, A. Rahman, and M. Indrawan (2010). New biogeographic records in the avifauna of Peleng Island (Sulawesi, Indonesia), with taxonomic notes on some endemic taxa. Bulletin of the British Ornithologists’ Club 130(3):181–207. Close ). Indeed, a study in Sabah (Malaysian Borneo) found that this species is increasing in logged forest (55 Johns, A. G. (1996). Bird population persistence in Sabahan logging concessions. Biological Conservation 75(1):3–10. Close ), but on Java it is absent from most forest fragments (56 Lambert, F. R., and N. J. Collar (2002). The future for Sundaic lowland forest birds: long-term effects of commercial logging and fragmentation. Forktail 18:127–146. Close ). Apparently rare in other areas, e.g., mainland southeast China, where found at just two of 54 forested sites surveyed in 1997–2004 and is known only from southern Yunnan, southern Guangdong, and Hainan Island (57 Yang Lan, Wen Xianji, Han Lianxian, Yang Xianjun, Shi Wenying and Wang Shuzen (1995). [The Avifauna of Yunnan China]. Vol. 1. Non-Passeriformes. Yunnan Science and Technology Press. In Chinese. Close , 58 Lee Kwok Shing, M. Lau Wai-neng, J. R. Fellowes, and Chan Bosco Pui Lok (2006). Forest bird fauna of South China: notes on current distribution and status. Forktail 22:23–38. Close ); and on Bohol and Negros, in the east-central Philippines (59 Brooks, T. M., T. D. Evans, G. C. L. Dutson, G. Q. A. Anderson, D. C. Asane, R. J. Timmins, and A. G. Toledo (1992). The conservation status of the birds of Negros, Philippines. Bird Conservation International 2(4):273–302. Close ), in which archipelago it is probably extinct on Cebu and Panay (60 Curio, E. (2002). Prioritisation of Philippine island avifaunas for conservation: a new combinatorial measure. Biological Conservation 106:373–380. Close ). A major decline has been registered in Laos (61 Thewlis, R. M., R. J. Timmins, T. D. Evans, and J. W. Duckworth (1998). The conservation status of birds in Laos: a review of key species. Bird Conservation International 8(Supplement):1–159. Close , 62 Duckworth, J.W. and Tizard, R.J. (2003). W.W. Thomas’s bird records from Laos, principally Vientiane, 1966–1968 and 1981–1983. Forktail 19:63–84. Close ); the species is reportedly extirpated in parts of Peninsular Malaysia due to excessive hunting and loss of plains-level forest (10 Wells, D. R. (1999). The Birds of the Thai-Malay Peninsula. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ); and numbers are probably much-reduced in Thailand due to dam construction in low-lying valleys (63 Round, P. D. (1988). Resident Forest Birds in Thailand: their Status and Conservation. Monograph 2. International Council for Bird Preservation, Cambridge, UK. Close ). The distinctive subspecies D. a. intermedia might well have declined on Talaud (Indonesia) (64 Riley, J. (1997). Biological Surveys and Conservation Priorities on the Sangihe and Talaud Islands, Indonesia. The Final Report of Action Sampiri 1995-1997. CSB Conservation Publications, Cambridge, UK. Close ).

Not globally threatened (Least Concern).

Known from many protected areas throughout the species’ range, e.g., Rajah Sikatuna National Park, Bohol (Philippines) (65 Brooks, T., Dutson, G., King, B. and Magsalay, P.M. (1996). An annotated check-list of the forest birds of Rajah Sikatuna National Park, Bohol, Philippines. Forktail 11:121–134. Close ), Similajau National Park, Sarawak (66 Duckworth, J. W., R. J. Wilkinson, R. J. Tizard, R. N. Kelsh, S. A. Irivin, M. I. Evans, and T. D. Orrell (1996). Bird records from Similajau National Park, Sarawak. Forktail 12:159–196. Close ), Tanjung Puting National Park, Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo) (67 Nash, S. V., and A. D. Nash (1988). An annotated checklist of the birds of Tanjung Puting National Park, Central Kalimantan. Kukila 3(3–4):93–116. Close ), and Manembonembo Nature Reserve, North Sulawesi (68 Bororing, R. F., I. Hunowu, Y. Hunowu, E. Maneasa, J. Mole, M. H. Nusalawo, F. S. Talangamin, and M. F. Wangko (2000). Birds of the Manembonembo Nature Reserve, North Sulawesi, Indonesia. Kukila 11:58–72. Close ).