Eurasian Curlew Numenius arquata Scientific name definitions

50–60 cm; male 410–1010 g, female 475–1360 g; wingspan 80–100 cm. Large greyish-brown curlew with long bill and plain head pattern; head, neck, breast and upperparts buffy brown with dark streaking, although plumage variable; pale underwing, white rump and lower back; belly white, flanks streaked. Most similar to N. madagascariensis, but bill less massive and usually shorter; underparts whiter. Female averages larger, especially in having longer bill, but also on average in wing length (286–326 mm, versus 276–302 mm in male) (1 Snow, D. W., and C. M. Perrins, Editors (1998). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Concise Edition. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Non-breeding adult has breast and upperparts grey-brown and underparts whiter. Juvenile has breast more buff and flanks less streaked; upperparts with buff spotting and fringes. Race <em>orientalis</em> usually paler, with underwing-coverts and axillaries largely unmarked; lower rump may be more barred and inner wing paler, but considerable overlap. Race suschkini is similar to nominate in overall size and bill length, but in plumage is extremely similar to orientalis (and may be indistinguishable from latter in the field, although the tail has more contrasting black and white bars, not brown and white).

Editor's Note: This article requires further editing work to merge existing content into the appropriate Subspecies sections. Please bear with us while this update takes place.

Editor's Note: Additional distribution information for this taxon can be found in the 'Subspecies' article above. In the future we will develop a range-wide distribution article.

Breeds on peat bogs, fens, upland moors (where prefers areas of relatively heterogeneous vegetation) (3 Pearce-Higgins, J.W. and Grant, M.C. (2006). Relationships between bird abundance and the composition and structure of moorland vegetation. Bird Study. 53(2): 112–125. Close ), damp grassland , grassy or boggy open areas in forest, extensive farmland, swampy and dry heathland, dune valleys and coastal marshes; increasing numbers breed in meadows. Breeds up to at least 760 m in Europe (1 Snow, D. W., and C. M. Perrins, Editors (1998). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Concise Edition. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). In non-breeding period , chiefly on muddy coasts, bays and estuaries; also regularly on muddy shores of inland lakes and rivers, as well as on farmland in parts of range (4 Gillings, S. and Beaven, P. (2004). Wintering farmland birds: results from mass-participation surveys. British Birds. 97(3): 118–129. Close ) (including stubble fields, winter cereals and pasture) (5 Smout, C. (2012). Curlews on stubble. British Birds. 105(9): 543. Close ). During migration, also found on wet grassland and arable fields. Males are more likely to feed in inland grassland than females and in Sweden, in agricultural landscapes, it has been found that birds use grassland for foraging early in breeding season but shift to cereal fields later (6 de Jong, A. (2012). Seasonal shift of foraging habitat among farmland breeding Eurasian Curlews Numenius arquata. Ornis Norvegica. 35: 23–27. Close ).

Mostly migratory ; some birds resident in W of range, especially in British Is and Ireland. Small numbers regularly winter in Iceland and Faeroes. Scandinavian and Baltic populations move SW to W European coast. The subspecies mix in Balkans after breeding, and probably in winter quarters from Mediterranean to W India. Nominate arquata presumably winters as far S as Banc d’Arguin (Mauritania), Morocco, Algeria and Italy, with orientalis occupying rest of African wintering grounds, e.g. birds wintering in Guinea-Bissau largely originate from C Siberia, and at least some wintering at Banc d’Arguin may also be orientalis (7 Wymenga, E., M. Engelmoer, C. J. Smit, and T. M. van Spanje (1990). Geographical breeding origin and migration of waders wintering in West Africa. Ardea 78(1):83–112. Close ). Some transcontinental migration in Africa, e.g. across Sahara. Most birds winter at moulting grounds, with little evidence of post-moulting movements. High fidelity to wintering grounds, although changes may be forced during unusually cold conditions, e.g. French wintering population in last quarter of 20th century was typically 18,000 birds, rising to up to 39,000 individuals when hard weather forced numbers further N to relocate S (8 Mahéo, R. and Triplet, P. (2001). Le courlis cendré Numenius arquata hivernant en France: évolution des effectifs et modalités d’occupation de l’espace [Eurasian Curlew, Numenius arquata, overwintering in France – variation in numbers and spatial distribution]. Alauda. 69(1): 1–8. (In French with English summary.). Close ) (however, within the last decade have been consistently much larger, despite series of relatively mild winters) (9 Quaintenne, G., Dubois, P.J., Deceuninck, B. and Mahéo, B. (2015). Limicoles côtiers hivernant en France : tendances des stationnement (198882-288213). Ornithos. 22(2): 57–71. Close ). Southward migration Jun–Nov, starting with non-breeders and adult females; return starts Feb, but mainly Mar–Apr; migration to Fennoscandian and Russian breeding grounds mainly mid Apr to early May. Four individuals tagged with data loggers at the Wadden Sea, Germany, left the area during Apr and migrated to their breeding grounds in NW Russia within 2–4 days; all individuals remained in the breeding area for 51–53 days, and then returned to the same place in the Wadden Sea where they had been caught (10 Schwemmer, P., Enners, L. and Garth, S. (2016). Migration routes of Eurasian Curlews (Numenius arquata) resting in the eastern Wadden Sea based on GPS telemetry. Journal of Ornithology. 157(3): 901–905. Close ). Many first-years remain in winter quarters all year. Vagrants have been recorded widely, including Australia (probably orientalis) and North America (presumably arquata, where < 5 records in NE, in autumn to spring, and one record in Florida, in autumn) and Bermuda (11 Howell, S. N. G., I. Lewington, and W. Russell (2014). Rare Birds of North America. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, USA. Close ).

Throughout year, diet includes annelids, arthropods, crustaceans, molluscs, berries and seeds; occasionally vertebrates, including small fish, amphibians, lizards, young birds (and possibly eggs) and small rodents; chiefly terrestrial insects and earthworms, especially in summer. In winter, in SW Spain, main food was shore crabs (Carcinus maenas) (12 Perez-Hurtado, A., J. D. Goss-Custard and F. Garcia (1997). The diet of wintering waders in Cádiz Bay, southwest Spain. Bird Study 44(1):45–52. Close ). Has been recorded killing (but not consuming a White Wagtail (Motacilla alba) (13 King, S. (2000). Eurasian Curlew capturing and killing Pied Wagtail. British Birds. 93(8): 399. Close ) and opportunistically taking African desert locusts (Schistocerca gregaria) (14 Ullman, M. (2006). African Desert Locusts in Morocco in November 2004. British Birds 99(9):489–491. Close ). Feeds by pecking, jabbing or deep probing in mud or damp soil, sometimes rather dexteriously. Occasionally seizes food from conspecifics or other wader species, but in turn this species is kleptoparastized by several gulls (Larus spp.) (15 Boileau, N. and Delaporte, P. (2012). Kleptoparasitisme sur Courlis cendré Numenius arquata [Kleptoparasitism of Eurasian Curlew Numenius arquata]. Alauda. 80(3): 213–217. (In French with English summary.). Close ). Some birds territorial on wintering grounds, others feed gregariously; in France at this season, foraging activities of birds on mudflats peaked 4–9 hours after high tide (16 Ponsero, A., Triplet, P., Aulert, C., Joyeux, E., Meunier, F. and Perin, R. (2008). Rythme hivernal d’alimentation du Courlis cendré Numenius arquata dans cinq grandes baies et estuaires français [Winter foraging activities of Curlew Numenius arquata in five large bays and estuaries in France] Alauda. 76(2): 89–100. (In French with English summary.). Close ). Long-billed females tend to forage more on intertidal flats, feeding on molluscs, crabs and polychaetes, while shorter-billed males tend to feed more on lumbricids on cultivated grassland ; a recent French study, where both sexes fed on intertidal mudflats, also reported sexual segregation in prey, with males selecting more shore crabs, whereas females favoured bivalves (17 Boileau, N. and Delaporte, P. (2012). Différences liées au sexe dans le comportement alimentaire du Courlis cendré Numenius arquata en zone intertidale [Sex related differences in feeding behaviour of the Eurasian Curlew Numenius arquata in winter]. Alauda. 80(1): 13–21. Close ).

A loud rich, ringing “COURli ... COURli ... COURli ...” is heard at any time of year, being used in warning, contact and excitement, as well as alarm, while a loud, mellow and rapid ui-cui-cui-cui” can be mixed into the first call. Three main calls are used in territorial advertisement, two of which can be heard year-round, namely (1) a low, drawn-out, even-pitched and slow whistle (“whaup” call), given both in flight (especially during parachute display) and from ground, and is rendered “ooorr ... ooorr ... ooorr ...”; (2) a mellow bubbling call, either in crescendo or diminuendo, often slowing at end, but sometimes starting and ending with clear notes (i.e. no trilled effect), and which rises or falls in pitch, and can be heard throughout the year (being used outside breeding season in aggression); and (3) the high-intensity bubbling song, which basically combines the first two vocalizations, starting with several slowly delivered whistles that gradually accelerate and rise rapidly in pitch into bubbling notes (“k-r-r-r-li”) before often switching to high-pitched “curLEE-curLEE-curLEE-curLEE ...” calls, and sometimes ending with the same “whaup” calls that started the song; this vocalization can also be heard year-round and is given by both sexes. Also rarely gives tittering N. phaeopus-like notes.

Lays Apr to early Jul. Monogamous and territorial, with most territory defence by male, usually using undulating display flight, which is most frequently witnessed early during breeding season. High degree of site fidelity and pair-bond can be maintained between years. Densities of up to 10 pairs/km², with some evidence for extra-pair copulation and greater male vigilance in higher-density populations (18 Currie, D. and Valkama, J. (2000). Population density and the intensity of paternity assurance behaviour in a monogamous wader: the Curlew Numenius arquata. Ibis. 142(3): 372–381. Close ). Two females may occasionally lay in same nest (19 de Jong, A. and Sandström, L. (1998). Two Curlews Numenius arquatus laid eggs in the same nest? Orn. Svecica. 8(1): 129–130. Close ), which is typically in open, often in grass or sedge cover; a large depression (15–24 cm wide by 3–12 cm deep), lined with dry grass and feathers (1 Snow, D. W., and C. M. Perrins, Editors (1998). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Concise Edition. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ), constructed by male (20 Harrison, C. J. O., and P. Castell (2002). Bird Nests, Eggs and Nestlings of Britain and Europe with North Africa and the Middle East. Second revised edition. HarperCollins, London, UK. Close ). Four eggs (range 2–5, exceptionally up to seven being product of two females), with laying interval of 1–2 days, colour green to olive marked with brown and grey (1 Snow, D. W., and C. M. Perrins, Editors (1998). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Concise Edition. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ), mean size 67·6 mm × 47·9 mm; single brood; incubation 26–30 days, by both sexes equally or mainly by female, starting on clutch completion (20 Harrison, C. J. O., and P. Castell (2002). Bird Nests, Eggs and Nestlings of Britain and Europe with North Africa and the Middle East. Second revised edition. HarperCollins, London, UK. Close ); chick pale ochraceous-buff above clouded with blackish brown, black crown and creamy buff on belly, hatch weight c. 50–55 g (21 Grant, M.C. (2002). Effects of radiotagging on the weight gain and survival of Curlew Numenius arquata chicks. Bird Study. 49(2): 172–176. Close ); both adults care for young; fledging 32–38 days, with females frequently deserting family group approximately halfway through this period, even earlier in late broods (22 Currie, D., Valkama, J., Berg, Å., Boschert, M., Norrdahl, K., Hänninen, M., Korpimäki, E., Pöyri, V. and Hemminki, O. (2001). Sex roles, parental effort and offspring desertion in the monogamous Eurasian Curlew Numenius arquata. Ibis. 143(4): 642–650. Close ). Including unsuccessful clutches, production c. 1·7 hatchlings/pair, and 0·25–1·4 fledlings/pair; reproductive success is higher in semi-natural habitats than in farmland, and lowest on intensively cultivated land; on farmland, nest failure caused by predation and farming practices, with rates of predation across Europe (e.g. in Germany) apparently increasing dramatically (23 Roodbergen, M. and van der Werf, B. and Hötker, H. (2012). Revealing the contributions of reproduction and survival to the Europe-wide decline in meadow birds: review and meta-analysis. Journal of Ornithology. 153(1): 53–74. Close , 24 Hötker, H. (2015). Überlebensrate und Reproduktion von Wiesenvögeln in Mitteleuropa [Survival rates and reproduction of meadow birds in Central Europe]. Vogelwarte. 53(2): 93–98. (In German with English summary.). Close ) and estimated at more than 70% (25 Macdonald, M.A. and Bolton, M. (2008). Predation on wader nests in Europe. Ibis. 150(Suppl. 1): 54–73. Close ); red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and Carrion Crows (Corvus corone) judged to be important causes of failure in upland Britain (26 Fletcher, K., Aebischer, N.J., Baines, D., Foster, R. and Hoodless, A.N. (2010). Changes in breeding success and abundance of ground-nesting moorland birds in relation to the experimental deployment of legal predator control. Journal of Applied Ecology. 47: 263–272. Close ); fledgling survival until maturity c. 30%. Annual mortality 66% in first year, deceasing to 18% until third year; annual adult survival (both sexes) in UK c. 90% (during period 1974–2011) (27 Taylor, R.C. and Dodd, S.G. (2013). Negative impacts of hunting and suction-dredging on otherwise high and stable survival rates in Curlew Numenius arquata. Bird Study. 60(2): 221–228. Close ). Age of first breeding two years. Oldest ringed birds at least 32 years.

Not globally threatened. Currently considered Near Threatened. Global population thought to number c. 77,000–1,065,000 individuals (2006 data (28 Wetlands International (2015). Waterbird Population Estimates. Wetlands International, Wageningen, The Netherlands. Close )#R), of which > 190,000 birds wintered in Britain and Ireland in late 1980s/early 1990s (29 Cayford, J.T. and Waters, R.J. (1996). Population estimates for waders Charadrii wintering in Great Britain, 1987/88–1991/92. Biological Conservation. 77(1): 7–17. Close ) and c. 180,000 in UK alone a decade later (30 Austin, G.E., Peachel, I. and Rehfisch, M.M. (2000). Regional trends in coastal wintering waders in Britain. Bird Study. 47(3): 352–371. Close ), with c. 90,000 in Wadden Sea (Germany/Netherlands) and c. 15,000 in France (1 Snow, D. W., and C. M. Perrins, Editors (1998). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Concise Edition. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Estimated 212,000–292,000 pairs in Europe, of which 76,000–88,000 in Finland, 45,000–53,000 in Britain and Ireland and 45,000–100,000 pairs in Russia (31 BirdLife International (2015). European Red List of Birds. Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg. Close ), but species is strongly declining in neighbouring Ukraine (32 Gorban, I. (2005). State of population of pasture birds in Ukraine. Alauda. 73(3): 295. Close ). Much smaller numbers elsewhere, especially in S of range, e.g. just 10–20 pairs in Slovenia (33 Vogrin, M. (2000). Breeding waders in Slovenia. Ornis Svecica 10:141–148. Close ). Has occasionally bred in Spain, e.g. in 1993, and in coastal Italy, e.g. 2011 (34 Scarton, F., Baldin, M. and Valle, R. (2012). A new Mediterranean breeding site for the Eurasian Curlew, in Italy. British Birds. 105(3): 154–155. Close ). Most European breeding populations have declined, some, e.g. in Croatia, to extinction, with other significant decreases registered in Germany (now stable at fewer than 5000 pairs) (35 Gedeon, K., C. Grüneberg, A. Mitschke, C. Sudfeldt, W. Eikhorst, S. Fischer, M. Flade, S. Frick, I. Geiersberger, B. Koop, M. Kramer, T. Krüger, N. Roth, T. Ryslavy, S. Stübing, S. R. Sudmann, S. Steffens, F. Vökler, and K. Witt (2014). Atlas Deutscher Brutvogelarten [Atlas of German Breeding Birds]. Stiftung Vogelmonitoring Deutschland und Dachverband Deutscher Avifaunisten, Münster, Germany. Close ), Poland, Slovakia and Switzerland (1 Snow, D. W., and C. M. Perrins, Editors (1998). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Concise Edition. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ); numbers of wintering populations have dropped even more. In UK breeding population declines during 1995–2013 amounted to 55% in Scotland (especially in heather moorland) (36 Amar, A., Grant, M., Buchanan, G., Sim, I., Wilson, J., Pearce-Higgins, J.W. and Redpath, S. (2011). Exploring the relationships between wader declines and current land-use in the British uplands. Bird Study. 58(1): 13–26. Close ) and 32% in England (locally higher in lowland grasslands) (37 Wilson, A.M., Vickery, J.A., Brown, A., Langston, R.H.W., Smallshire, D., Wotton, S. and Vanhinsbergh, D. (2005). Changes in the numbers of breeding waders on lowland wet grasslands in England and Wales between 1982 and 2002. Bird Study. 52(1): 55–69. Close ), while that in Northern Ireland fell by 58% between 1987 and 1999 (38 Henderson, I.G., Wilson, A.M., Steele, D. and Vickery, J.A. (2002). Population estimates, trends and habitat associations of breeding Lapwing Vanellus vanellus, Curlew Numenius arquata and Snipe Gallinago gallinago in Northern Ireland in 1999. Bird Study. 49(1): 17–25. Close ) (by 2013, numbers were 82% smaller than in 1987) (39 Colhoun, K., Mawhinney, K. and Peach, W.J. (2015). Population estimates and changes in abundance of breeding waders in Northern Ireland up to 2013. Bird Study. 62(3): 394–403. Close ) and in the Republic of Ireland 12,000 pairs were estimated in early 1980s but not more than 150 pairs in 2015 (40 Brown, D., Wilson, J., Douglas, D., Thompson, P., Foster, S., McCulloch, N., Phillips, J., Stroud, D., Whitehead, S., Crockford, N. and Sheldon, R. (2015). The Eurasian Curlew – the most pressing bird conservation priority the UK? British Birds. 108(11): 660–668. Close ). Numbers of <em>orientalis</em> wintering in SW Asia and E Africa exceed 28,000 birds; 15,000–20,000 counted in Iran in 1970s; however, E China alone holds at least 82,000 birds (41 Cao, L., Tang, S., Wang, X. and Barter, M. (2009). The importance of eastern China for shorebirds during the non-breeding season. Emu. 109(2): 170–178. Close ) (versus a previous flyway estimate of just 35,000 birds) (42 Barter, M. A. (2002). Shorebirds of the Yellow Sea: importance, threats and conservation status. Wetlands International Global Series 9, International Wader Studies 12, Canberra, Australia. Close ). Elsewhere in S Asia numbers poorly known, although c. 1000 are thought to winter in Bangladesh (43 Bird, J. P., A. C. Lees, S. U. Chowdhury, R. Martin, R. Halder, and E. Ul Haque (2010). Observations of globally threatened shorebirds in Bangladesh. BirdingASIA 14: 53–58. Close ) and some numbers have recently been discovered in NE Sumatra (44 Putra, C. S., D. Hikmatullah, D. M. Prawiradilaga, and J. B. C. Harris (2015). Surveys at Bagan Percut, Sumatra, reveal its international importance to migratory shorebirds and breeding herons. Kukila 18(2): 46–59. Close ). Decline of nominate race probably due mainly to loss of breeding habitat and loss and fragmentation of grassland, caused by agricultural intensification, e.g., heavy egg and chick mortality occurs if grassland is cut, and predation is high in agriculturally improved habitats; “improvement” of marginal grassland known to reduce breeding numbers. In Ireland, afforestation of moorlands has led to decline in breeding pairs, and presence of isolated plantations within upland landscapes facilitates constant pressure from predators in other areas too (45 Douglas, D.J.T., Bellamy, P.E., Stephen, L.S., Pearce-Higgins, J.W., Wilson, J.D. and Grant, M.C. (2014). Upland land use predicts population decline in a globally near-threatened wader. Journal of Applied Ecology. 51(1): 194–203. Close ). Wintering populations affected by disturbance and building developments on high-tide roosts, by pollution, and locally by intensive hunting. On passage, the species is also threatened by the degradation of migration staging areas due to land reclamation, pollution, human disturbance and reduced river flows, perhaps especially in E Asia (46 Yang, H.-Y., B. Chen, M. Barter, T. Piersma, C.-F. Zhou, F.-S. Li, and Z.-W. Zhang (2011). Impacts of tidal land reclamation in Bohai Bay, China: ongoing losses of critical Yellow Sea waterbird staging and wintering sites. Bird Conservation International 21(3):242–259. Close ). Monitored European population has fallen by 42% since 1980 (47 PECBMS (2015). Trends of common birds in Europe, 2015 Update. Pan-European Common Bird Monitoring Scheme. European Bird Census Council, Prague and BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. http://www.ebcc.info/index.php?ID=587. Close ) and still estimated to be decreasing by 30–49% in 31·2 years (three generations) (31 BirdLife International (2015). European Red List of Birds. Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg. Close ), although halts to the decline have been reported from some areas in recent years (48 Byrkjedal, I., Kyllingstad, K., Efteland, S. and Grøsfjell, S. (2012). Population trends of Northern Lapwing, Eurasian Curlew and Eurasian Oystercatcher over 15 years in a southwest Norwegian farmland. Ornis Norvegica. 35: 16–22. Close ) and species appears to be increasing over last decade in Fennoscandia (49 Lindström, Å., Green, M., Husby, M., Kålås, J.A. and Lehikoinen, A. (2015). Large-scale monitoring of waders on their boreal and Arctic breeding grounds in northern Europe. Ardea. 103(1): 3–15. Close ). Given widespread and sustained population declines, species is now considered Vulnerable at the European level (31 BirdLife International (2015). European Red List of Birds. Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg. Close ). A European management plan was published in 2007 (50 Jensen, F.P. and Lutz, M. (2007). Management plan for Curlew (Numenius arquata) 274747-274749. European Commission Technical Report 2007–003. Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg. Close ). Recommended conservation measures include protection of wintering sites and reductions in intensive farming, while predator control could at least ameliorate the decline (26 Fletcher, K., Aebischer, N.J., Baines, D., Foster, R. and Hoodless, A.N. (2010). Changes in breeding success and abundance of ground-nesting moorland birds in relation to the experimental deployment of legal predator control. Journal of Applied Ecology. 47: 263–272. Close ) and simple best-practice procedures, such as delaying grass harvesting, are known to facilitate local recovery (51 Broyer, J., Curtet, L. and Chazal, R. (2014). How to improve agri-environment schemes to achieve meadow bird conservation in Europe? A case study in the Saône valley, France. Journal of Ornithology. 155(1): 145–155. Close ). At same time, population trends should continue to be monitored and key parameters driving declines in breeding areas determined.