Flesh-footed Shearwater Ardenna carneipes Scientific name definitions

This large, dark shearwater barely reaches Neotropical offshore waters, occurring rarely during migration and winter off northwest Mexico, and strictly as a vagrant elsewhere in the region. It breeds on islands in the southern Indian Ocean and southwest Pacific, ranging regularly into the northeast Pacific from Alaska through central California, becoming notably rare south of there. Distinguished with caution from Sooty Shearwater by larger size, slower wingbeats, entirely dark underwing coverts, and pinkish bill with dark tip. Beware confusion with dark extreme Pink-footed Shearwater, which shares similar size, shape, and flight style.

40–48 cm (1 Howell, S. N. G. (2012). Petrels, Albatrosses, and Storm-Petrels of North America: A Photographic Guide. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, USA. Close ); 533–765 g (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ); wingspan 99–116 cm (1 Howell, S. N. G. (2012). Petrels, Albatrosses, and Storm-Petrels of North America: A Photographic Guide. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, USA. Close ). Large, broad-winged, entirely dark shearwater with relatively robust pale bill . Plumage blackish-brown overall, usually darkest on head  and neck and on upper surface of remiges and tail, browner fringes on mantle to uppertail-coverts may afford a scaly appearance, especially on scapulars; slightly paler and greyer on underside of remiges  and greater coverts, usually more noticeable at primary bases, which may appear more or less silvery in some lights; abdomen can look obscurely spotted and slightly paler than upperparts; iris blackish ; bill pinkish to pale horn with tip  mostly dusky to black; legs  pink or pinkish  , sometimes with dusky gray wash over part of toes. Sexes alike, but male significantly larger in most measurements (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close , 3 Thalmann, S., Baker, G.B., Hindell, M., Double, M.C. and Gales, R. (2007). Using biometric measurements to determine gender of Flesh-footed Shearwaters, and their application as a tool in long-line by-catch management and ecological field studies. Emu. 107(3): 231–238. Close ). Juvenile as adult, but has fresh plumage in Apr–Jul when older birds are worn or moulting (1 Howell, S. N. G. (2012). Petrels, Albatrosses, and Storm-Petrels of North America: A Photographic Guide. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, USA. Close ). Those breeding in E Australia and New Zealand average larger than those in Western Australia (1 Howell, S. N. G. (2012). Petrels, Albatrosses, and Storm-Petrels of North America: A Photographic Guide. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, USA. Close ). Very much resembles A. creatopus, but dark abdomen prevents confusion; structurally more similar to Calonectris shearwaters than to most other Ardenna, while all-dark plumage recalls some Procellaria, but is smaller and has slimmer bill; separated from all-dark Pterodroma by structure, slimmer and paler bill, and flight action; dark-morph Ardenna pacifica is similar in color but has a notably longer, wedge-shaped tail and thinner bill; Puffinus nativitatis is smaller and slender-billed; other dark Ardenna have thinner bills and variable whitish on underwing.

Indian and Pacific Oceans, breeding on St Paul I (S Indian Ocean) and SW Australia, with single isolated colony in South Australia; breeds also on Lord Howe I (off E Australia) and on islands off North I and in Cook Strait (New Zealand).

Marine and pelagic; mainly in offshore waters over continental shelf. Breeds on vegetated (scrub- or forest-covered) hills or grassy slopes facing sea.

Migratory. Ringing results show that birds from Lord Howe I move N to winter off E Korea mainly Apr–Jul, but from late Mar and until Sept (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close , 4 Duckworth, J.W. (2004). Eight birds new to DPR Korea. Forktail 20: 116–120. Close ); New Zealand population was assumed to follow same pattern, although all ringing recoveries have been from within 645 km of colonies, and routes are poorly known, e.g. is rare off New Guinea (5 Bailey, S.F. (1992). Seabirds of Madang Province, Papua New Guinea, September–November 1989. Emu 92(4):223–232. Close ) and in Melanesian seas (6 Tarburton, M. (2009). New birds and other interesting sightings from Melanesia. Muruk 9(2):56–91. Close ); species occurs N to Sea of Okhotsk (Jun) (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Data loggers were recently sused to study the migration of three shearwaters that bred in New Zealand; in early April, they migrated to the NW Pacific Ocean in 23 ± 2 days, occupying core distributions within the Kuroshio/Oyashio transition system for 91 ± 17 days, with subsequent movements into the Sea of Okhotsk prior to return migration to New Zealand in mid Sept (19 ± 1 days) (7 Rayner, M.J., Taylor, G.A., Thompson, D.R., Torres, L.G., Sagar, P.M. and Shaffer, S.A. (2011). Migration and diving activity in three non-breeding flesh-footed shearwaters Puffinus carneipes. Journal of Avian Biology. 42(3): 266
–270. Close ). Also recorded in small (but increasing) numbers off North America (Gulf of Alaska and British Columbia S to Baja California), especially in warm-water years, mainly May–Nov, most numerous between Sept and Nov, but reported off NW Mexico between Jan and Jul (mainly Mar–May) and recorded all months off C & S California, with occasional records N to Washington in Dec–Mar (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close , 1 Howell, S. N. G. (2012). Petrels, Albatrosses, and Storm-Petrels of North America: A Photographic Guide. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, USA. Close ). Two specimen records from Chile, off Valdivia (Oct 1913) and Robinson Crusoe I (Feb 1914), but sight records off C Chile in Sept seem doubtful (8 Jaramillo, A. (2003). A Field Guide to the Birds of Chile Including the Antarctic Peninsula, the Falkland Islands and South Georgia. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close , 9 Marín, M. (2004). Lista Comentada de las Aves de Chile. Annotated Checklist of the Birds of Chile. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. (In English and Spanish.) Close ). Migration through NE Pacific may follow clockwise pattern (1 Howell, S. N. G. (2012). Petrels, Albatrosses, and Storm-Petrels of North America: A Photographic Guide. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, USA. Close ). Another population, the W breeders (in Australia), winters in Indian Ocean, mostly in Arabian Sea, where arrives in late May and is commonest between late Jun and mid Aug (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ) (present off Oman Apr to mid Nov, sometimes in very large numbers) (10 Hirschfeld, E. (1992). Observations of seabirds off Dhofar (Oman), 1990–2. Sandgrouse 14(2):62–71. Close , 11 Eriksen, J., and R. Victor (2013). Oman Bird List: the Official List of the Birds of the Sultanate of Oman. Seventh edition. Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman. Close ), some birds occurring SW to South Africa and Mascarenes (12 Safford, R.J. and Basque, R. (2007). Records of migrants and amendments to the status of exotics on Mauritius in 1989–93. Bull. Afr. Bird Club. 14(1): 26–35. Close ), passing through S Indian Ocean in mid to late Apr and returning in Sept (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ), and has exceptionally been recorded NW to head of Red Sea at Eilat (Israel/Jordan, Aug 1980) (13 Andrews, I.J., Khoury, F. and Shirihai, H. (1999). Jordan Bird Report 1995–97. Sandgrouse 21(1):10–35. Close , 14 Shirihai, H. (1999). Fifty species new to Israel, 1979–1998: their discovery and documentation, with tips on identification. Sandgrouse 21(1):45–105. Close ) and on W coast of India (Kerala) (15 Palot, M.J. (2008). Occurrence of Flesh-footed Shearwater Puffinus carneipes on the Kozhikode coast, Kerala. Indian Birds. 4(2): 73. Close ). On departure from breeding colonies, birds initially appear to move N towards W Indonesia, before heading W across Indian Ocean (16 Powell, C.D.L. (2009). Foraging movements and the migration trajectory of Flesh-footed Shearwaters Puffinus carneipes from the south coast of Western Australia. Marine Orn.. 37(2): 115–120. Close ). Record of large numbers in Indonesia suggests at least some of W breeders may winter in Pacific.

Little known; squid and fish recorded, and these are probably chief dietary constituents, at least during breeding season, but evidence from stable isotope studies suggests that species also takes significant numbers of soft-bodied, non-cephalopod invertebrates (e.g. coelenterates) during non-breeding season, when lanternfish (Myctophidae) and Pacific saury (Cololabis saira) were the principal prey found in the species’ digestive tracts, while pieces of unidentified fish, possibly Pacific pomfret (Brama japonica) and shredded squid tissue, mostly neon flying squid (Ommastrephes bartrami) were also found (17 Gould, P., P. Ostrom, and W. Walker (1997). Food of Flesh-footed Shearwaters Puffinus carneipes associated with high-seas driftnets in the central North Pacific Ocean Emu 97(2):168–173. Close ). Prey  mostly caught by pursuit-plunging; also uses surface-seizing, contact-dipping (18 Wood, K.A. (1993). Feeding behaviour, offal preferences and tarsus shape of Puffinus shearwaters off central New South Wales. Notornis 40(2):123–127. Close ) and diving  (regularly reaching up to 5 m below surface during breeding season) (18 Wood, K.A. (1993). Feeding behaviour, offal preferences and tarsus shape of Puffinus shearwaters off central New South Wales. Notornis 40(2):123–127. Close ). Diving depths during migration (2·5 ± 2·4 m), and in NW Pacific (2·4 ± 2·6 m) were shallower than at onset of breeding (4·8 ± 8·7 m) (7 Rayner, M.J., Taylor, G.A., Thompson, D.R., Torres, L.G., Sagar, P.M. and Shaffer, S.A. (2011). Migration and diving activity in three non-breeding flesh-footed shearwaters Puffinus carneipes. Journal of Avian Biology. 42(3): 266
–270. Close ). Forms loose flocks, which may forage with other shearwaters (1 Howell, S. N. G. (2012). Petrels, Albatrosses, and Storm-Petrels of North America: A Photographic Guide. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, USA. Close ). Regularly scavenges behind fishing boats, taking offal, but attracted to other boats only briefly (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close , 1 Howell, S. N. G. (2012). Petrels, Albatrosses, and Storm-Petrels of North America: A Photographic Guide. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, USA. Close ). Mostly diurnal feeder .

Principally vocalizes at night, from within burrows, on ground or in flight, but occasionally by day (when in nests) at least in response to playback; an introductory “gug-gug-gug” followed by a trisyllabic crooning “ku-kooo-ah” that may be repeated 3–6 times, followed by a dying splutter, and the whole lasting c. 10 seconds (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ).

Starts late Sept/early Oct with return to colony, egg-laying c. 21 Nov to 12 Dec and fledging late Apr/early May (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Strictly nocturnal at breeding sites, arriving c. 30 minutes after sunset (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Colonial, using same burrows as winter-breeding Pterodroma macroptera (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ); nests  in burrows   1–2 m long (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Single white egg  , size 60–75 mm × 38–50 mm (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ); incubation (estimated) c. 53 days, with mean shift length of 9·5 days on Lord Howe I (19 Thalmann, S.J., Lea, M.-A., Hindell, M., Priddel, D. and Carlile, N. (2010). Provisioning in Flesh-footed Shearwaters (Puffinus carneipes): plastic foraging behavior and the implications for increased fishery interactions. Auk. 127(1): 140–150. Close ); chicks  have grey down  , brooded for 2–3 days, thereafter fed every 0·9 days, with meal size increasing (but frequency of feeds decreasing) as fledging period progresses and overall mean meal size 112 g (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close , 19 Thalmann, S.J., Lea, M.-A., Hindell, M., Priddel, D. and Carlile, N. (2010). Provisioning in Flesh-footed Shearwaters (Puffinus carneipes): plastic foraging behavior and the implications for increased fishery interactions. Auk. 127(1): 140–150. Close ); fledging c. 92/93 days when c. 545 g, but reaches peak weight of c. 882 g when 60 days old (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ) or 1160 g (or 193% of mean adult body mass) at 53 days old, according to different Australian studies (19 Thalmann, S.J., Lea, M.-A., Hindell, M., Priddel, D. and Carlile, N. (2010). Provisioning in Flesh-footed Shearwaters (Puffinus carneipes): plastic foraging behavior and the implications for increased fishery interactions. Auk. 127(1): 140–150. Close ). During chick-rearing period, birds from Western Australian colonies generally fed within 300 km of nest-sites (16 Powell, C.D.L. (2009). Foraging movements and the migration trajectory of Flesh-footed Shearwaters Puffinus carneipes from the south coast of Western Australia. Marine Orn.. 37(2): 115–120. Close ), while at Lord Howe I foraging-trip duration was bimodal, with both short trips (≤ 3 days) and long trips (> 3 days) recorded, with mean trip length increasing during the late chick-rearing period (19 Thalmann, S.J., Lea, M.-A., Hindell, M., Priddel, D. and Carlile, N. (2010). Provisioning in Flesh-footed Shearwaters (Puffinus carneipes): plastic foraging behavior and the implications for increased fishery interactions. Auk. 127(1): 140–150. Close ). Few additional data, but longevity record an Australian bird that was in excess of 30 years old (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ) and breeding success on Lord Howe I, Australia, in 2002 was estimated at 50% (20 Priddel, D., Carlile, N., Fullagar, P., Hutton, I. and O’Neill, L. (2006). Decline in the distribution and abundance of flesh-footed shearwaters (Puffinus carneipes) on Lord Howe Island, Australia. Biological Conservation. 128: 412–424. Close ).

Not globally threatened. Currently considered Near Threatened. Previously thought to number several hundred thousand birds, perhaps 220,000 pairs and 650,000 individuals (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). However, errors have been found in hitorical literature, and, together with more recent surveys, global population recently recalculated at no more than 74,000 breeding pairs (21 Lavers, J.L. (2015). Population status and threats to Flesh-footed Shearwaters (Puffinus carneipes) in South and Western Australia. ICES Journal of Marine Science. 72(2): 316-327. Close ). Overall, Australian population estimated at 125,000–350,000 pairs (> 80% of global population) in early 2000s (22 Baker, G. B., R. Gales, S. Hamilton, and V. Wilkinson (2002). Albatrosses and petrels in Australia: a review of their conservation and management. Emu 102(1):71–97. Close ). Lord Howe I held an estimated c. 20,000–40,000 breeding pairs in 1978 (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ), revised to 17,462 breeding pairs in 2003, when burrow occupancy was calculated at 58% (20 Priddel, D., Carlile, N., Fullagar, P., Hutton, I. and O’Neill, L. (2006). Decline in the distribution and abundance of flesh-footed shearwaters (Puffinus carneipes) on Lord Howe Island, Australia. Biological Conservation. 128: 412–424. Close ); more recently, in 2009, population was estimated to be 16,267 pairs, representing a decline in the number of pairs since the previous count of 6·8% (c. 1·3% per year) (23 Reid, T., Hindell, M., Lavers, J.L. and Wilcox, C. (2013). Re-examining mortality sources and population trends in a declining seabird: using Bayesian methods to incorporate existing information and new data. PLOS One. 8(4): e58230. Close ). Sandy I historical surveys in 1976 corrected to 5011 pairs had declined to 3400 pairs in 2012 (21 Lavers, J.L. (2015). Population status and threats to Flesh-footed Shearwaters (Puffinus carneipes) in South and Western Australia. ICES Journal of Marine Science. 72(2): 316-327. Close ). 500 pairs on St Paul I (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Perhaps 10–15 pairs on Phillip I, in Norfolk group (where breeding not yet confirmed) (24 Priddel, D., N. Carlile, O. Evans, B. Evans, and H. McCoy (2010). A review of the seabirds of Phillip Island in the Norfolk Island group. Notornis 57:113–127. Close ). In New Zealand, 50,000–100,000 pairs estimated in 1983, 25,000–50,000 pairs in 2000, on c. 20 islands off North I S to Cook Strait (most important colonies being on Lady Alice, Whatupuke, Coppermine and Karewa) (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Recent surveys suggest the population is significantly smaller at 10,000–15,000 pairs BirdLife International (2017) Species factsheet: Ardenna carneipes. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 24/04/2017. . New Zealand population has most recently been assessed as At Risk and to be declining (25 Miskelly, C. M., J. E. Dowding, G. P. Elliott, R. A. Hitchmough, R. G. Powlesland, H. A. Robertson, P. M. Sagar, R. P. Scofield, and G. A. Taylor, (2008). Conservation status of New Zealand birds, 2008. Notornis 55(3):117–135. Close ); adult survival, however, is moderate to high in N New Zealand compared to that of congeners (26 Barbraud, C., Booth, A., Taylor, G.A. and Waugh, S.M. (2014). Survivorship in Flesh-footed Shearwater Puffinus carneipes at two sites in northern New Zealand. Marine Ornithology. 42(2): 91–97. Close ). Main threat is rate of destruction of natural breeding habitat, dense forest on low flat ground or gentle slopes on offshore islands (e.g., increasing urbanization has reduced available on Lord Howe I by > 35% since 1978) (20 Priddel, D., Carlile, N., Fullagar, P., Hutton, I. and O’Neill, L. (2006). Decline in the distribution and abundance of flesh-footed shearwaters (Puffinus carneipes) on Lord Howe Island, Australia. Biological Conservation. 128: 412–424. Close ); birds now being displaced to higher ground. Species is known to be taken as bycatch by longline fisheries, but generally impacts are poorly studied and perhaps under-estimated (27 Klaer, N. and Polacheck, T. (1997). By-catch of albatrosses and other seabirds by Japanese longline fishing vessels in the Australian Fishing Zone from April 1992 to March 1995. Emu. 97(2): 150–167. Close , 28 Brothers, N., Gales, R. and Reid, T. (1999). The influence of environmental variables and mitigation measures on seabird catch rates in the Japanese tuna longline fishery within the Australian Fishing Zone, 1991–1995. Biological Conservation. 88: 85–101. Close , 2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close , 29 Brothers, N., Duckworth, A.R., Safina, C. and Gilman, E.L. (2010). Seabird bycatch in pelagic longline fisheries is grossly underestimated when using only haul data. PLOS One. 5(8): e12491. Close ), except for the Lord Howe I population, for which the mean number of birds killed between 1998 and 2002 was estimated to be 1794–4486 birds per year, equating to between 8972 and 18,490 birds over this five-year period (30 Baker, G.B. and Wise, B.S. (2005). The impact of pelagic longline fishing on the flesh-footed shearwater Puffinus carneipes in Eastern Australia. Biological Conservation. 126: 306–316. Close ). Tourism also contributes to local destruction of coastal sites. Suffers some predation by rats (Rattus norvegicus) (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ), cats, skinks, foxes and in past pigs; some human exploitation in past, and species was formerly more widespread in New Zealand (2 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Maintenance of present numbers would be favoured by creation of reserves on offshore islands, with human access restricted; eradication of introduced predators also desirable.