Green Sandpiper Tringa ochropus Scientific name definitions

21–24 cm; 53–119 g; wingspan 57–61 cm. Medium-sized, dark sandpiper; foreneck, breast and upper flanks streaked grey-brown, underparts white; rump white  , tail white with thick black bars. Very similar to generally allopatric T. solitaria, but larger and darker; head greyer, spots on upperparts whiter and more distinct, has white rump (only visible in flight); bill generally heavier and longer, wings broader. Resembles Actitus hypoleucos and T. glareola, but larger (10% in body size and 15% longer wings and tail versus T. glareola); generally darker above, with dark underwing. Female averages larger. Non-breeding adult has less spotted upperparts and face, foreneck and centre of breast whiter, and no streaking on flanks. Juvenile like breeding adult, with buff spots on upperparts, paler breast and no streaks on flanks; white eye-ring very distinct.

Scandinavia and N & E Europe through C Asia to E Siberia; isolated population in Kyrgyzstan and extreme NW China (NW Xinjiang). Winters in Mediterranean and tropical Africa, and from Turkey through Middle East and Indian Subcontinent to S Japan, E China, Philippines and N Borneo; small wintering populations in W & WC Europe, and in sheltered valleys of Tien Shan zone.

Damp wooded areas, in old, swampy woodland and montane forest; preferably pine woods, but also in spruce or alder, in vicinity of rivers, streams, swamps or lakes. Outside breeding season less attracted to vicinity of trees, in variety of inland fresh waters, such as marshes, riverbanks, sewage farms, small ponds and narrow ditches, often with protective vegetation . Scarce in intertidal areas, and then only in channels of saltmarshes. During non-breeding season, recorded to 2730 m in Africa (Ethiopia) (1 Ash, J. S., and J. Atkins (2009). Birds of Ethiopia and Eritrea: An Atlas of Distribution. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ), 2800 m in Himalayas (Bhutan) (2 Spierenburg, P. (2005). Birds in Bhutan: Status and Distribution. Oriental Bird Club, Bedford, UK. Close ) and at above 3000 m in Turkey (3 Kirwan, G. M., K. A. Boyla, P. Castell, B. Demirci, M. Özen, H. Welch, and T. Marlow (2008). The Birds of Turkey: The Distribution, Taxonomy and Breeding of Turkish Birds. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ).

Moves overland on broad front, generally in low concentrations on passage and at stopover sites; many passage records at Saharan oases. N European population probably moves S & SW to wintering grounds . In mild winters some birds stay as far N as S Scandinavia or C England. Southward movements from Jun to early Nov, with females leaving first and main passage through NW & C Europe in Jul–Aug (4 Snow, D. W., and C. M. Perrins, Editors (1998). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Concise Edition. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ); species present in N and equatorial Africa mid/late Jul to late Apr (e.g. in Ethiopia) (1 Ash, J. S., and J. Atkins (2009). Birds of Ethiopia and Eritrea: An Atlas of Distribution. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ) and in S Africa Oct–Mar; return passage late Feb to mid May. At least locally very faithful to wintering areas, in both W Africa (5 Sauvage, A., Rumsey, S. and Rodwell, S. (1998). Recurrence of Palaearctic birds in the lower Senegal river valley. Malimbus. 20(1): 33–53. Close ) and C Europe. Few birds remain in wintering areas during breeding season and some may migrate part way N and, for example, oversummer in Jordan (6 Khoury, F. (1996) Observations on the avifauna of the Azraq wetland, Jordan, June 1995. Sandgrouse 18(2):52–57. Close ) and Turkey (3 Kirwan, G. M., K. A. Boyla, P. Castell, B. Demirci, M. Özen, H. Welch, and T. Marlow (2008). The Birds of Turkey: The Distribution, Taxonomy and Breeding of Turkish Birds. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Vagrant to locations as far flung as Iceland, Azores, Jan Mayen (4 Snow, D. W., and C. M. Perrins, Editors (1998). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Concise Edition. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ), St Helena (7 Rowlands, B.W., Trueman, T., Olson, S.L., McCulloch, M.N. and Brooke, R.K. (1998). The Birds of St. Helena. An Annotated Check-list. BOU Check-list 16. British Ornithologists’ Union, Tring, UK. Close ), Seychelles, Madagascar (8 Sueur, F. (1996) Observations ornithologiques à Madagascar. Alauda 64(4):435–442. Close , 9 Safford, R. J., and A. F. A. Hawkins, Editors (2013). The Birds of Africa. Volume 8. The Malagasy Region. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ), Maldives (10 Anderson, R.C. (2007). New records of birds from the Maldives. Forktail. 23: 135–144. Close ), Crozet Is (unconfirmed) (11 Shirihai, H. (2007). A Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife. The Birds and Mammals of the Antarctic Continent and the Southern Ocean. Second edition. A. & C. Black, London, UK. Close ), Sulawesi, Australia, New Guinea (Trans-Fly region) (12 Pratt, T. K., and B. M. Beehler (2015) Birds of New Guinea. Second edition. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, USA. Close ), Palau (13 Pratt, H. D., M. Falanruw, M. T. Etpison, A. Olsen, D. W. Buden, P. Clement, A. Gupta, H. Ketebengang, Y. P. Yalap, D. R. Herter, D. Klauber, P. Pisano, D. S. Vice, and G. J. Wiles (2010). Noteworthy bird observations from the Caroline and Marshall Islands 1988–2009, including five new records for Micronesia. Western Birds 41(2):70–101. Close ) and the USA (11 records all on Aleutians or Bering Sea islands, almost always in spring) (14 Gibson, D. D., and B. Kessel (1992). Seventy-four new avian taxa documented in Alaska, 1976–1991. Condor 94(2):454–467. Close , 15 Howell, S. N. G., I. Lewington, and W. Russell (2014). Rare Birds of North America. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, USA. Close ).

Feeds on aquatic and terrestrial insects , mainly adults and larvae of beetles, Diptera and Trichoptera, but also dragonfly larvae, ants, water-bugs and moth larvae; annelids, small crustaceans, spiders, fish and plant fragments. Mainly pecks food from shallow water and from surface of ground and plants; rarely probes; sometimes uses trampling to stir up food (e.g. tubifex worms) and turns over stones underwater, e.g. to find leeches (4 Snow, D. W., and C. M. Perrins, Editors (1998). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Concise Edition. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Sometimes wades or swims, and even dives, while feeding. Normally feeds alone, sometimes in small, scattered groups of up to 50 birds.

Song, given by male from ground and in display flight (see Breeding), is a sustained, melodious “weet-weet-klooi-kooi-eet-EET” with other phrases such as “kit-klu-ee-tit” or “kit-klu-aa-ee”t inserted; most-frequently heard call is a musical “weet” or “klu-eet”, often becoming a more melodious “weet-loo-eetl-eetl” or “ker-leet-till-leet-leet”, which is often given when flushed or in flight.

Lays mid/late Apr to late Jun (earliest around Baltic, up to c. 1 month later in N Scandinavia and Russia) (4 Snow, D. W., and C. M. Perrins, Editors (1998). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Concise Edition. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Monogamous. Densities normally 1–8 birds/km², but 11–19 birds/km² recorded and under 0·5 birds/km² in extreme N taiga. Male performs typical Tringa display flight, initially rising on rapidly fluttering or vibrating wings, then describing circular or semicircular flight, before diving steeply on fixed wings, and then repeating the performance (4 Snow, D. W., and C. M. Perrins, Editors (1998). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Concise Edition. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Usually uses old tree nests of other bird species, especially thrushes (Turdus) or Common Woodpigeon (Columba palumbus), usually with little modification, or old squirrel drey (4 Snow, D. W., and C. M. Perrins, Editors (1998). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Concise Edition. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ); sometimes on natural platform, such as stump or mound; up to 20 m high; occasionally nests on ground, e.g. among tree roots, in slight depression with little or no lining (4 Snow, D. W., and C. M. Perrins, Editors (1998). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Concise Edition. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Single-brooded. Clutch four eggs, sometimes just two or three, pale cream to pale olive with red-brown or purplish markings, mean size 39·1 mm × 28 mm (16 Harrison, C. J. O., and P. Castell (2002). Bird Nests, Eggs and Nestlings of Britain and Europe with North Africa and the Middle East. Second revised edition. HarperCollins, London, UK. Close ); incubation 20–23 days, by both sexes, but mainly female, commencing with final egg (16 Harrison, C. J. O., and P. Castell (2002). Bird Nests, Eggs and Nestlings of Britain and Europe with North Africa and the Middle East. Second revised edition. HarperCollins, London, UK. Close ); downy chick similar to that of T. glareola, pale drab grey marked fuscous-black, with dark line across and along crown and long tail; both sexes tend chicks at first, but female may leave before fledging; fledging c. 28 days. Oldest ringed bird nine years, eight months.

Not globally threatened (Least Concern). Possibly more than 1,000,000 breeding birds in Europe, of which 10,000–20,000 pairs in Norway (1970–1990), 20,000–40,000 pairs in Sweden (late 1980s), 50,000–80,000 pairs in Finland (late 1980s), 10,000–20,000 pairs in Estonia (1991), 15,000–25,000 pairs in Latvia (1980s), 15,000–18,000 pairs in Belarus (1990) and in excess of 100,000 pairs in Russia (1970–1990) (4 Snow, D. W., and C. M. Perrins, Editors (1998). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Concise Edition. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Numbers wintering in W & E Africa and SW Asia largely unknown, although 1000–3000 estimated in Mali (17 Girard, O., Niagaté, B., Thal, J. and Boutin, J.M. (2009). Les limicoles au Mali, en particulier dans le Delta interieur du Niger. Malimbus. 31(1): 1–19. Close ); in S Asia and E & SE Asia probably 100,000 to several 100,000s of birds. Breeding range in Poland has probably decreased (remains locally numerous in E & NE, with 1500–3000 pairs), although species colonized Denmark in 1950s (40–50 pairs in 1981–1983), Czech Republic in late 1970s (5–15 pairs in 1985–1989) and recent northward expansion in Norway and Finland, where numbers increased considerably in latter third of 20th century (4 Snow, D. W., and C. M. Perrins, Editors (1998). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Concise Edition. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ) but more recently have declined significantly (18 Lindström, Å., Green, M., Husby, M., Kålås, J.A. and Lehikoinen, A. (2015). Large-scale monitoring of waders on their boreal and Arctic breeding grounds in northern Europe. Ardea. 103(1): 3–15. Close ). In addition, species is now regular breeder in small numbers in Bulgaria, while occasional breeding has been reported in Britain (1917, 1959, 2009 and possibly in all years 2011–2013) (19 Holling, M., and The Rare Breeding Birds Panel (2011). Rare breeding birds in the United Kingdom in 2009. British Birds 104(9):476–537. Close , 20 Holling, M., and The Rare Breeding Birds Panel (2013). Rare breeding birds in the United Kingdom in 2011. British Birds 106(9):496–554. Close , 21 Holling, M., and The Rare Breeding Birds Panel (2014). Rare breeding birds in the United Kingdom in 2012. British Birds 107(9):504–560. Close , 22 Holling, M., and the Rare Breeding Birds Panel (2015). Rare breeding birds in the United Kingdom in 2013. British Birds 108(7):373–422. Close ), Netherlands (1927), Spain (1996) (23 de la Puente, J. and de Juana, E. (1997). Noticiario ornitologico 1997. Ardeola. 44(2): 243–261. Close ), Austria (most recently in late 1980s), Italy and Slovenia (1980) (4 Snow, D. W., and C. M. Perrins, Editors (1998). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Concise Edition. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close , 24 Vogrin, M. (2000). Breeding waders in Slovenia. Ornis Svecica 10:141–148. Close ); perhaps European Turkey (25 Özkan, K. (2011). An avifaunal survey of the Istranca mountains, Turkish Thrace: novel breeding bird records including the first breeding record of Wood Warbler Phylloscopus sibilatrix in Turkey. Sandgrouse. 33(2): 163–173. Close ). Further E, single breeding record (in 1932) in Kazakhstan (26 Wassink, A., and G. J. Oreel (2007). The Birds of Kazakhstan. Published privately, De Cocksdorp, Texel, The Netherlands. Close ). Breeding population of Ukraine (240–280 pairs in 1988) has declined due to habitat changes and species is also thought to be declining in Germany, where population most recently estimated at 950–1200 pairs (2005–2009) (27 Gedeon, K., C. Grüneberg, A. Mitschke, C. Sudfeldt, W. Eikhorst, S. Fischer, M. Flade, S. Frick, I. Geiersberger, B. Koop, M. Kramer, T. Krüger, N. Roth, T. Ryslavy, S. Stübing, S. R. Sudmann, S. Steffens, F. Vökler, and K. Witt (2014). Atlas Deutscher Brutvogelarten [Atlas of German Breeding Birds]. Stiftung Vogelmonitoring Deutschland und Dachverband Deutscher Avifaunisten, Münster, Germany. Close ).