Lesser Spotted Eagle Clanga pomarina Scientific name definitions

55–67 cm; male 1000–1400 g, female 1300–2200 g (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ); wingspan 146–168 cm (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). In field, perched bird appears rather uniform chocolate brown  . In flight , most adults have upperwing coverts paler than rather dark flight feathers, but much individual variation; less conspicuous contrast between pale underwing coverts and flight feathers; these characteristics usually allow distinction from adult C. clanga. Eyes yellowish-brown, cere and feet yellow. In flight, adult differs from <em>Aquila</em> <em>nipalensis</em> by seeming lack of barring on remiges and tail (bars visible only at very close range). Pale morph, variously named fulvescens, fulviventris or pallida, is very rare. Juvenile brown like adult, but generally darker, with brownish irides, yellow nape patch, and barring on remiges and rectrices more obvious in flight; spots on upperwing coverts  smaller and narrower than in immature <em>C</em>. <em>clanga</em> ; spots retained until bird three years old, gradually diminishing.

Previously placed in Aquila. Closely related to C. clanga, but specific status confirmed by genetic and morphological studies. The two hybridize regularly (2 Väli, Ü., Dombrovski, V., Treinys, R., Bergmanis, U., Daróczi, S.J., Dravecky, M., Ivanovski, V., Lontkowski, J., Maciorowski, G., Meyburg, B.U., Mizera, T., Zeitz, R. and Ellegren, H. (2010). Widespread hybridization between the Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga and the Lesser Spotted Eagle Aquila pomarina (Aves: Accipitriformes) in Europe. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 100(3): 725–736. Close , 3 Lontkowski, J. and Maciorowski, G. (2010). Identification of juvenile Greater Spotted Eagle, Lesser Spotted Eagle and hybrids. Dutch Birding. 32(6): 384–397. Close ). Has been thought to be closely related to Hieraaetus wahlbergi, but more research needed. Formerly considered conspecific with C. hastata, which is now a full species owing to several traits: brown vs yellow/amber iris (3); darker brown head having black shaft streaks (1); paler brown undertail coverts (1); and much larger gape (mean for females 60·1 mm vs 52·3 mm in length, 47·4 mm vs 37·4 mm in width; score at least 2) (4 Parry, S.J., Clark, W.S. and Prakash, V. (2002). On the taxonomic status of the Indian Spotted Eagle Aquila hastata. Ibis. 144(4): 665–675. Close ). Monotypic.

• Lesser x Greater Spotted Eagle (hybrid) Clanga pomarina x clanga

C, E & SE Europe through Turkey and Caucasus to S Caspian lowlands; E limit not well known, and breeding attempts as far W as NE Spain (5 Bosch, J. and Meyburg, B.U. (2012). The Lesser Spotted Eagle Aquila pomarina in Catalonia (Spain)—breeding attempt and migration. Vogelwelt. 133(2): 89–97. Close ). Winters in sub-Saharan Africa, mainly from Sudan S to E Angola, NE Namibia, N Botswana and NE South Africa.

Breeds in patchy open woodlands (deciduous, coniferous, or mixed) and near forest edges, preferring forested river valleys and moist woods near meadows and fields; less dependent on bogs and water than C. clanga (6 Maciorowski, G., Mirski, P., Kardel, I., Stelmaszczyk, M., Mirosław-Swiątek, D., Chormański, J. and Okruszko, T. (2015). Water regime as a key factor differentiating habitats of spotted eagles Aquila clanga and Aquila pomarina in Biebrza Valley (NE Poland). Bird Study. 62(1): 120–125. Close ), and more adapted to cultivated areas. One study showed species nests selectively near remote bodies of water in Estonia but not in Lithuania (7 Väli, Ü., Treinys, R. and Lõhmus, A. (2004). Geographical variation in macrohabitat use and preferences of the Lesser Spotted Eagle Aquila pomarina. Ibis. 146(4): 661-671. Close ). Highest breeding densities in lowlands but also breeds in dry mountain forests in Carpathians, Balkans, Anatolia and Caucasus, up to 2200 m. On African wintering grounds uses moist open or sparsely wooded savanna (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ).

Highly migratory, soaring often and thus dependent on thermals (8 Hedenström, A. (1997). Predicted and observed migration speed in Lesser Spotted Eagle Aquila pomarina. Ardea. 85(1): 29-36. Close ), and generally avoiding large bodies of water (9 Meyburg, B.-U., Matthes, J. and Meyburg, C. (2002). Satellite-tracked Lesser Spotted Eagle avoids crossing water at the Gulf of Suez. British Birds. 95(8): 372-376. Close ). C European birds leave breeding grounds around mid-Sept and return in Apr. European birds migrate over Bosphorus (Turkey), Israel and Suez, where well studied, but migration in Africa little understood. Total numbers counted per season at migration watch-sites in Israel varied from 56,533–141,868 in fall from 1982–1990 (10 Leshem, Y. and Yom-Tov, Y. (1996). The magnitude and timing of migration by soaring raptors, pelicans and storks over Israel. Ibis. 138(2): 188–203. Close ) and from 54,370–83,701 in spring from 1990–1999 (11 Alon, D., B. Granit, J. Shamoun-Baranes, Y. Leshem, G. M. Kirwan, and H. Shirihai (2004). Soaring bird migration over northem Israel in autumn. British Birds 97(4):160–182. Close ). Also during northward migration, 15,232 counted over the Bosphorus from 18 Mar–31 May 2006 (12 Üner, Ö., Boyla, K. A., Bacak, E., Birel, E., Çelikoba, İ., Dalyan, C., Tabur, E. and Yardim, Ü. (2010). Spring migration of soaring birds over the Bosphorus, Turkey, in 27727726. Sandgrouse. 32(1): 20-33. Close ). A satellite-tracked juvenile covered 6000 km from Latvia to Sudan in barely a month, remaining there for more than 6 weeks, before continuing to Kenya (13 Meyburg, B.-U., Scheller, W., Paillat, P., Meyburg, C., Eichacker, X. and Graszynski, K. (1994). Tracking the inter-continental migrations of three Aquila eagles by satellite. Journal of Ornithology. 135(3): 532. Close ). An adult fitted with a satellite transmitter took 7·5 weeks to travel between its nesting territory in Germany and its wintering grounds in Zambia, moving an average of 166 km per day (14 Meyburg, B.-U., Scheller, W. and Meyburg, C. (1995). [Migration and wintering of the Lesser Spotted Eagle (Aquila pomarina): a study by means of satellite telemetry]. Journal of Ornithology. 136(4): 401-422. In German with English summary. Close ). Three satellite-tracked adults wintering across a belt of semi-arid savannah-woodland from N Botswana and Namibia and into S Angola favoured activity zones where they spent much of the winter, smaller core areas to which they returned each year, and tiny intensive foraging clusters; philopatry was demonstrated by one bird which revisited core areas near the Okavango Delta over eight wintering seasons; birds usually arrived to the wintering areas in Nov and departed N in late Jan–Feb (15 Meyburg, B.-U., Mendelsohn, S., Mendelsohn, J. and de Klerk, H.M. (2015). Revealing unexpected uses of space by wintering Aquila pomarina: how does satellite telemetry identify behaviour at different scales? Journal of Avian Biology. 46(6): 648–657. Close ). Few birds cross sea from Italy and S Greece to N Africa.

Mammals , reptiles, amphibians, birds and some insects. In C Europe, mainly small mammals, especially voles (Microtus) (16 Lõhmus, A. and Väli, Ü. (2004). The effects of habitat quality and female size on the productivity of the Lesser Spotted Eagle Aquila pomarina in the light of the alternative prey hypothesis. Journal of Avian Biology. 35(5): 455-464. Close ); also, to some extent, small to medium-sized birds, and many amphibians, mainly Rana temporaria, and reptiles. In humid lowland areas, amphibians can make up 42% of diet by number. In Slovakian hills, mammals constitute 85% of prey; in Greece, diet consists mainly of snakes (70%), especially Natrix natrix, with some birds, lizards and insects; in Georgia, mammals (29%), reptiles (25%) and amphibians (34%) almost equally important, whereas birds only found in 8% of cases. Carrion taken only rather rarely. On wintering grounds, diet apparently consists largely of Red-billed Quelea (Quelea quelea) nestlings and swarming termite alates (17 Herremans, M. and Herremans-Tonnoeyr, D. (2000). Land use and the conservation status of raptors in Botswana. Biological Conservation. 94(1): 31-41. Close ); also small mammals and frogs. Mainly hunts in open areas, like C. clanga, using three different techniques: soaring c. 100 m high and diving down; still-hunting from perch ; and walking on ground.

Generally silent, except during breeding season. Most common call is a repeated yelping “kyeep kyeep kyeep” or “kyek kyek kyek  ”. Other calls include a loud, drawn-out, whistled “weeek” by male in display, a shrill long-drawn “pseeek” by soliciting or begging female, and “geet geet” by both sexes when arriving at nest (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ).

In C Europe, laying in late Apr and early May, fledging in late Jul and early Aug. Occupied nests well spaced, but in suitable habitat may be < 1 km apart. Nest almost always in trees, in most cases 12–15 m high, sometimes only 4–5 m, or as much as 30 m; extremely rarely on ground. Normally only few hundred metres from edge of forest. Large stick nest, 50–150 cm in diameter; nest cup c. 30 cm wide, lined with green twigs and sometimes grass. Eyries often reused over several years, up to ten years consecutively. Normally two eggs, sometimes one, rarely three; four eggs averaged 63·3 mm × 49·4 mm (18 Adamian, M. S., and D. Klem (1999). Handbook of the Birds of Armenia. American University of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia. Close ); incubation c. 39 days (36–41). Chicks have greyish-white down; fledging c. 8 weeks; second chick normally dies as result of cainism, and only rarely do both young survive to fledging without human intervention; exceptions occur when food availability is high, e.g. in Estonia, where nests with two fledglings recorded regularly during peak vole years (19 Väli, Ü. (2012). Factors limiting reproductive performance and nestling sex ratio in the Lesser Spotted Eagle Aquila pomarina at the northern limit of its range: the impact of weather and prey abundance. Acta Orn.. 47(2): 157-168. Close ). In study in N Caucasus, Russia, nine nests were 5–12 m above ground (mean 8 m), and an average of 0·71 young fledged per nesting attempt (20 Väli, Ü., Belik, V.P. and Babkin, I.G. (2009). The Lesser Spotted Eagle Aquila pomarina in the North Caucasus, Russian Federation: taxonomic status, genetic diversity, breeding density and nest site characteristics. Sandgrouse. 31(2): 122-127. Close ). Sexual maturity probably at 3–4 years; oldest ringed bird 26 years old.

Not globally threatened (Least Concern). CITES II. Has disappeared from much of former range in W, e.g. W Germany, or become very rare, e.g. E Germany, former Yugoslavia, Greece. Total population in mid 1980s estimated at c. 100,000 birds: 120 pairs in Germany; 3000–3500 birds in Belarus (1990s); 1300 in Poland; 1000 in Latvia; 500 in Lithuania; 150–200 in Estonia; 500 in Slovakia; 150 in Hungary; 70 in Greece; 220–250 in Ukraine; 50–80 pairs in Azerbaijan (1990s); and 85–90 in Georgia. By 2004, global population estimate down to 14,000–19,000 breeding pairs (42,000–57,000 individuals) according to BirdLife International, with highest numbers in Belarus (3200–3800 pairs), Latvia (2800–5200 pairs), Poland (1700–1900 pairs) and Romania (2500–2800 pairs); and by 2015 the totals had been revised as follows: 3700–4000 pairs in Latvia, 3200–3800 pairs in Belarus (unchanged), 1100–1300 pairs in Ukraine, 600–1000 pairs in Russia, 600–700 pairs in Estonia, 600–800 pairs in Slovakia and 40 pairs in Hungary (21 Ławicki, Ł., and A. B. van den Berg (2015). WP reports. Dutch Birding 37(5):340–353. Close ). High counts in Israel do not correspond to known breeding populations; E extent of range in Russia requires investigation. Problems include habitat alteration (mainly drainage of wet forests and meadows, deforestation) and hunting. Hunting particularly important during migration, especially in Syria and Lebanon, where hundreds or thousands are shot annually. International Symposium held on species in Poland in 1991. Productivity can be increased artificially by preventing loss of second chick due to cainism. In parts of Poland interbreeding with C. clanga is common and increased by > 30% between 1996 and 2012 (21 Ławicki, Ł., and A. B. van den Berg (2015). WP reports. Dutch Birding 37(5):340–353. Close ).