Pallas's Fish-Eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus Scientific name definitions

72–84 cm; male 2000–3300 g, female 2100–3700 g (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ); wingspan 180–215 cm (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Mainly brown plumage , with head and neck golden sandy buff ; rounded tail dark brown with conspicuous broad white band . Female somewhat larger than male (e.g. wing 558–624 mm, versus 545–585 mm in male) by up to 19% and averages 9% heavier (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Bare parts: irides dark brown to dark grey, cere pale blue-grey occasionally yellowish, bill dark greyish blue with darker tip; legs whitish to dirty yellow (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Main likelihood of confusion is with H. ichthyaetus, which is rather smaller, has shorter and broader wings, white belly and grey foreparts (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Juvenile more uniformly brown, including all of tail, but has pale band on underwing-coverts and pale panel on inner primaries, often with rufescent nape and large dark ear-coverts patch; bleach very pale by first summer with contrastingly darker head (2 Rasmussen, P. C., and J. C. Anderton (2005). Birds of South Asia: the Ripley Guide. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Close ); cere and bill grey, legs off-white (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Adult plumage acquired over 4–5 years, although ragged white tailband may appear as early as at one year old (2 Rasmussen, P. C., and J. C. Anderton (2005). Birds of South Asia: the Ripley Guide. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Close ); second- to third-year still similar to juvenile, but has more uniformly pale underparts and almost all-dark flight feathers (3 Robson, C. (2000). A Field Guide to the Birds of South-east Asia. New Holland, London, UK. Close ). Compared to young H. albicilla is less heavily built, slimmer-headed, longer-tailed and smaller-billed, with diagnostic dark mask, less clearly marked underwing, paler grey-brown upperparts, all-dark tail and rufous-tinged grey-brown underparts that are at most only slightly streaked (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ).

C & S Asia, from S Russia, Kazakhstan (possibly extinct as a breeder (4 BirdLife International (2013). IUCN Red List for birds. URL: http://www.birdlife.org (download Aug 2013). Close ) ) to Mongolia and NE China, S to Pakistan, N India, Myanmar and SC China (Sichuan).

Rivers and lakes, freshwater wetlands and pools; often in arid areas or steppe. In winter, may visit inland seas and in Arabia has been recorded at reservoirs and in littoral habitats (5 Symens, P., Suhaibani, A. and Eichacker, X. (1994). The occurrence of Pallas’s Fish Eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus in Arabia. Bull. Orn. Soc. Middle East. 33: 3-6. Close ). Present in high plateaux and valleys, reaching 5200 m in Tibet, and mainly breeds at c. 3200–4700 m in China (6 Collar, N. J., A. V. Andreev, S. Chan, M. J. Crosby, S. Subramanya, and J. A. Tobias, Editors (2001). Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. Close ), but is not generally found above 1800 m in Bhutan (7 Spierenburg, P. (2005). Birds in Bhutan: Status and Distribution. Oriental Bird Club, Bedford, UK. Close ).

Sedentary and dispersive, although mainly migratory in N, particularly where inland waters frozen over for long periods, e.g. Mongolia is generally vacated by late Sept (6 Collar, N. J., A. V. Andreev, S. Chan, M. J. Crosby, S. Subramanya, and J. A. Tobias, Editors (2001). Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. Close ); in Bhutan (7 Spierenburg, P. (2005). Birds in Bhutan: Status and Distribution. Oriental Bird Club, Bedford, UK. Close ) and N India, some (at least) disperse to highlands post-breeding, e.g. to plateau lakes in W Tibet (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ) and in Uttar Pradesh is considered a breeding visitor to Corbett National Park between mid Sept and May (8 Naoroji, R. (1999). Status of diurnal raptors of Corbett National Park with notes on their ecology and conservation. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 96(3):387-398. Close ). In China moves as far SE as Zheijang (6 Collar, N. J., A. V. Andreev, S. Chan, M. J. Crosby, S. Subramanya, and J. A. Tobias, Editors (2001). Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. Close ) and Jiangsu in winter (9 Brazil, M. (2009). Field Guide to the Birds of East Asia: Eastern China, Taiwan, Korea, Japan and Eastern Russia. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ), with vagrants reaching NW Thailand (most recently in Nov 1999) (6 Collar, N. J., A. V. Andreev, S. Chan, M. J. Crosby, S. Subramanya, and J. A. Tobias, Editors (2001). Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. Close ), Cambodia (Jun 2000) (6 Collar, N. J., A. V. Andreev, S. Chan, M. J. Crosby, S. Subramanya, and J. A. Tobias, Editors (2001). Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. Close ) and S Vietnam (3 Robson, C. (2000). A Field Guide to the Birds of South-east Asia. New Holland, London, UK. Close ) (latter considered doubtful) (6 Collar, N. J., A. V. Andreev, S. Chan, M. J. Crosby, S. Subramanya, and J. A. Tobias, Editors (2001). Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. Close ). Possibly recorded in South Korea (6 Collar, N. J., A. V. Andreev, S. Chan, M. J. Crosby, S. Subramanya, and J. A. Tobias, Editors (2001). Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. Close ) and some probably also reach Indian Subcontinent (where passage observed through Nepal in Sept/early Oct) (6 Collar, N. J., A. V. Andreev, S. Chan, M. J. Crosby, S. Subramanya, and J. A. Tobias, Editors (2001). Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. Close ) and Myanmar, where local populations basically sedentary, for example in Kashmir and most of Pakistan (6 Collar, N. J., A. V. Andreev, S. Chan, M. J. Crosby, S. Subramanya, and J. A. Tobias, Editors (2001). Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. Close ). Elsewhere, migrants reach Afghanistan, Arabia, Iran and formerly Iraq, where unrecorded since 1940s (10 Salim, M. A., O. F. Al-Sheikhly, K. A. Majeed, and R. F. Porter (2012). An annotated checklist of the birds of Iraq. Sandgrouse 34(1):4–43. Close ); only three records in Iran since 1980 (11 Khaleghizadeh, A., D. A. Scott, M. Tohidifar, S. B. Musavi, M. Ghasemi, M. E. Sehhatisabet, A. Ashoori, A. Khani, P. Bakhtiari, H. Amini, C. Roselaar, R. Ayé, M. Ullman, B. Nezami, and F. Eskandari (2011). Rare birds in Iran in 1980−2010. Podoces 6(1):1–48. Close ), whereas in stark contrast all records (some of them involving multiple individuals, both adults and juveniles) in Arabia have been since 1972 (between mid Oct and fourth week of Mar), including one in United Arab Emirates, two in S Oman and ten in SW, E & N Saudi Arabia (5 Symens, P., Suhaibani, A. and Eichacker, X. (1994). The occurrence of Pallas’s Fish Eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus in Arabia. Bull. Orn. Soc. Middle East. 33: 3-6. Close ). Pre-1950s, birds even more rarely wandered W to Ukraine, the Crimea, Caucasus and Europe, with single immatures recorded in Poland (in 1943), Norway (1949) and Finland (1926), but an adult seen in Germany, Denmark and Holland in Sept–Oct 1976 is generally considered to have been an escape from captivity (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ).

Mainly fish (e.g., in Bangladesh, Cirrhina mrigala, Labio ruhita, Catla catla, Notoptera chitala, Nystus aor, Hilsa ilisha, Ompok pubda, Wallago atu, Amphiomus cuchia) (6 Collar, N. J., A. V. Andreev, S. Chan, M. J. Crosby, S. Subramanya, and J. A. Tobias, Editors (2001). Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. Close ); also waterbirds, rodents, lagomorphs, frogs, reptiles (snakes, turtles), insects (wasp larvae) (6 Collar, N. J., A. V. Andreev, S. Chan, M. J. Crosby, S. Subramanya, and J. A. Tobias, Editors (2001). Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. Close ), offal and carrion; even human bodies on occasions. Exceptionally recorded killing fish up to 6·5 kg by weight (the latter which it could hardly lift) (6 Collar, N. J., A. V. Andreev, S. Chan, M. J. Crosby, S. Subramanya, and J. A. Tobias, Editors (2001). Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. Close ). Observed to kill waterbirds as large as Demoiselle Crane (Anthropoides virgo) and Bar-headed Goose (Anser indicus) (6 Collar, N. J., A. V. Andreev, S. Chan, M. J. Crosby, S. Subramanya, and J. A. Tobias, Editors (2001). Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. Close ), as well Pheasant-tailed Jacana (Hydrophasianus chirurgus), Common Poachard (Aythya ferina), Ferruginous Duck (A. nyroca), Lesser Whistling-duck (Dendrocygna javanica) and Little Grebe (Tachybaptus ruficollis) (6 Collar, N. J., A. V. Andreev, S. Chan, M. J. Crosby, S. Subramanya, and J. A. Tobias, Editors (2001). Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. Close ), and regularly raids breeding colonies of species such as Black-headed Ibis (Threskiornis melanocephalus), Asian Openbill (Anastomus oscitans) and Darter (Anhinga melanogaster) to take nestlings, as well as those of terns, cormorants, geese and othe, usually ground-nesting, waterbirds, while in winter in India reported to regularly predate Common Coots (Fulica atra) (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ) and Ruddy Shelducks (Tadorna ferruginea) (12 Singh, A. P. (2000). Birds of lower Garhwal Himalayas: Dehra Dun valley and neighbouring hills. Forktail 16:101–123. Close ). Fish caught near surface, without plunge, often in shallows or when stranded in drying pools (6 Collar, N. J., A. V. Andreev, S. Chan, M. J. Crosby, S. Subramanya, and J. A. Tobias, Editors (2001). Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. Close ); alternatively taken as carrion; also steals from Ospreys (Pandion haliaetus), Haliastur indus, Circus aeruginosus (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ), Icthyophaga humilis, Great Cormorants (Phalacrocorax carbo) (8 Naoroji, R. (1999). Status of diurnal raptors of Corbett National Park with notes on their ecology and conservation. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 96(3):387-398. Close ) and other birds, even terns (6 Collar, N. J., A. V. Andreev, S. Chan, M. J. Crosby, S. Subramanya, and J. A. Tobias, Editors (2001). Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. Close ), and in NE India seen to also pirate fish from an otter (Lutra lutra) (13 Lahkar, B. P. (2000). Pallas's fishing eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus (Pallas) pirates fish from an otter Lutra lutra (Linn.). Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 97(3): 425. Close ). At least in past, regularly ‘pirated’ wounded ducks shot by hunters (6 Collar, N. J., A. V. Andreev, S. Chan, M. J. Crosby, S. Subramanya, and J. A. Tobias, Editors (2001). Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. Close ).

Noisy when breeding, but usually silent at other times (9 Brazil, M. (2009). Field Guide to the Birds of East Asia: Eastern China, Taiwan, Korea, Japan and Eastern Russia. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Loud, guttural and far-carrying “kha-kha-kha-kha” or “gao-gao-gao-gao”, also continuous hoarse “kook-kook-kook” (somewhat like large Larus gull); sometimes utters high-pitched, excited yelping (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Multiple birds calling simultaneously produce musical babble (2 Rasmussen, P. C., and J. C. Anderton (2005). Birds of South Asia: the Ripley Guide. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Close ). Each note lasts c. 0·15 seconds, given at rate of 2–3 notes/second (2 Rasmussen, P. C., and J. C. Anderton (2005). Birds of South Asia: the Ripley Guide. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Close ).

Laying Sept–Feb in N India and Myanmar (6 Collar, N. J., A. V. Andreev, S. Chan, M. J. Crosby, S. Subramanya, and J. A. Tobias, Editors (2001). Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. Close ), whereas in Bangladesh returns to nest-sites in late Aug (14 Sourav, M.S.H., Ahmed, B. and Thompson, P. (2011). Pallas’s Fish Eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus in Bangladesh. BirdingASIA. 16: 101-105. Close ); later farther N, formerly late Mar in Kazakhstan and May in Tibet, where season lasts until Sept (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Both adults build (sometimes over period as long as c. 1 month) (6 Collar, N. J., A. V. Andreev, S. Chan, M. J. Crosby, S. Subramanya, and J. A. Tobias, Editors (2001). Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. Close ) enormous nest of sticks and branches (up to 200 cm across by > 100 cm deep (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ), but perhaps more usually 90–150 cm across by 40–45 cm deep) (6 Collar, N. J., A. V. Andreev, S. Chan, M. J. Crosby, S. Subramanya, and J. A. Tobias, Editors (2001). Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. Close ), lined with fresh leaves including those of water hyacinth, rushes and other soft materials (14 Sourav, M.S.H., Ahmed, B. and Thompson, P. (2011). Pallas’s Fish Eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus in Bangladesh. BirdingASIA. 16: 101-105. Close ); normally in large tree (e.g. Bombax ceiba, Ficus infectoria, F. religiosa, Pongamia pinnata, Samanea saman, Tamarindus indica, Terminalia arjuna, Trewia nudiflora) (14 Sourav, M.S.H., Ahmed, B. and Thompson, P. (2011). Pallas’s Fish Eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus in Bangladesh. BirdingASIA. 16: 101-105. Close ) near water (and 4·6 (14 Sourav, M.S.H., Ahmed, B. and Thompson, P. (2011). Pallas’s Fish Eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus in Bangladesh. BirdingASIA. 16: 101-105. Close )–35 m above ground) (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ), but, if necessary, can be built in reedbeds or on ground and, especially in N of range, on cliffs (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ); in Bangladesh, where regularly nests in villages, recently observed breeding on large communications towers (14 Sourav, M.S.H., Ahmed, B. and Thompson, P. (2011). Pallas’s Fish Eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus in Bangladesh. BirdingASIA. 16: 101-105. Close ); same nest reused repeatedly, reportedly even for 100 years or more (14 Sourav, M.S.H., Ahmed, B. and Thompson, P. (2011). Pallas’s Fish Eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus in Bangladesh. BirdingASIA. 16: 101-105. Close ). May relay if first clutch is lost early in season (6 Collar, N. J., A. V. Andreev, S. Chan, M. J. Crosby, S. Subramanya, and J. A. Tobias, Editors (2001). Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. Close ). Clutch normally 2–3 white eggs, sometimes four or one (6 Collar, N. J., A. V. Andreev, S. Chan, M. J. Crosby, S. Subramanya, and J. A. Tobias, Editors (2001). Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. Close ), mean size 69·7 mm × 55·1 mm (3 Robson, C. (2000). A Field Guide to the Birds of South-east Asia. New Holland, London, UK. Close ); incubation c. 40 days, mainly by female (provisioned by male), hatching 2–3 days apart (6 Collar, N. J., A. V. Andreev, S. Chan, M. J. Crosby, S. Subramanya, and J. A. Tobias, Editors (2001). Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. Close ); chicks have first down brownish grey, second down greyish brown, long and woolly; chicks fed by both adults, but apparently mainly by male (6 Collar, N. J., A. V. Andreev, S. Chan, M. J. Crosby, S. Subramanya, and J. A. Tobias, Editors (2001). Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. Close ); normally maximum of two chicks raised to fledging, which takes 70–105 days, with young only becoming independent c. 30 days later (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ).

ENDANGERED. CITES II. Small population, declining as result of habitat loss and degradation and disturbance of wetlands and breeding sites. Global population estimated in 2017 at 1000–2500 mature individuals, a downward revision of the 2000 estimate of 2500–10,000 individuals BirdLife International (2018) Species factsheet: Haliaeetus leucoryphus. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 09/01/2018. . Possibly no longer breeds in Kazakhstan (where most post-1950s occurrences have been in N & W) (6 Collar, N. J., A. V. Andreev, S. Chan, M. J. Crosby, S. Subramanya, and J. A. Tobias, Editors (2001). Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. Close ), although some authorities have noted recent increase in records (15 Kovalenko, A. V. (2009). Modern records of the Pallas' Fish Eagle in Kazakhstan. Raptors Conservation. 16(1): 134-139. Close ), whereas others consider the species to be still in decline there (16 Wassink, A., and G. J. Oreel (2008). Birds of Kazakhstan: new and interesting data. Dutch Birding 30(2):93–100. Close ). Main breeding populations thought to be in China and Indian Subcontinent, although numbers apparently always relatively small in Bhutan (7 Spierenburg, P. (2005). Birds in Bhutan: Status and Distribution. Oriental Bird Club, Bedford, UK. Close ); while in early 2000s Assam population was estimated at < 150 pairs (17 Barua, M., and P. Sharma (2005). The birds of Nameri National Park, Assam, India. Forktail 21:15–26. Close ). In 2009 surveys in Mongolia produced a minimum total of 20 individuals at eight sites (18 Gilbert, M. and Gombobataar, S. (2009). The status and distribution of Pallas's Fish Eagle in Mongolia: a report on field surveys June-August 211117111179. Close ), but it is no longer considered a breeding stronghold (and perhaps never was) (19 Gilbert, M., Tingay, R., Losolmaa, J., Sureda, N., Gilbert, C., Batmunkh, D. and Gombobaatar, S. (2014). Distribution and status of the Pallas’s Fish Eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus in Mongolia: a cause for conservation concern? Bird Conservation International. 24(3): 379–388. Close ). Recorded from a number of protected areas, especially in Indian Subcontinent, including Corbett National Park (Uttar Pradesh) (8 Naoroji, R. (1999). Status of diurnal raptors of Corbett National Park with notes on their ecology and conservation. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 96(3):387-398. Close ), Kaziranga (20 Barua, M., and P. Sharma (1999). Birds of Kaziranga National Park, India. Forktail 15:47–60. Close ) and Nameri (17 Barua, M., and P. Sharma (2005). The birds of Nameri National Park, Assam, India. Forktail 21:15–26. Close ) National Parks (Assam), and Manas National Park (Bhutan) (7 Spierenburg, P. (2005). Birds in Bhutan: Status and Distribution. Oriental Bird Club, Bedford, UK. Close ). Has declined significantly during 20th century in China, Pakistan, India, Nepal and Bangladesh; in Bangladesh, now rarely seen away from NE haors (wetland system), the decline due mainly to loss of large trees and to degradation and overexploitation of wetlands, as well as other human factors, although local conservation initiatives appear to be having some success (14 Sourav, M.S.H., Ahmed, B. and Thompson, P. (2011). Pallas’s Fish Eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus in Bangladesh. BirdingASIA. 16: 101-105. Close ). Main threats are habitat loss, degradation and disturbance. In Indian Subcontinent, and probably through most of range, wetlands drained or converted for agriculture and human settlements, while felling of large trees close to wetlands has reduced availability of nest-sites and roosting sites; spread of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) a big problem in India, as is siltation of lakes (caused by deforestation). Moreover, breeding success reduced by pesticide pollution of wetlands and contamination of wetlands by industrial effluents, and this compounded by disturbance of wetlands. Reductions in prey, due chiefly to hunting and overfishing, are further human-related problems. Development of oil and gas fields a threat in Myanmar, and hunting a problem locally in China. In Mongolia, in summer 2009, two recently completed hydroelectric dams were found to be severely disrupting water levels in drainage basins and could have adverse impact on all sites where this species occurs in Great Lake Basin, while overfishing noted at several sites and falling water levels (caused by low rainfall) observed in some areas (18 Gilbert, M. and Gombobataar, S. (2009). The status and distribution of Pallas's Fish Eagle in Mongolia: a report on field surveys June-August 211117111179. Close ).