Eastern Wattled-Honeyeater Foulehaio carunculatus Scientific name definitions

19–21 cm; male 34 g and female 28 g. Adult is largely drab to dark olive above, diffusely mottled or faintly streaked blackish on top of head and neck, mantle, back and scapulars, with bare yellow skin extending narrowly from gape and meeting yellow fleshy wattle on lower anterior ear-coverts, bordered below by sparsely feathered (variable) patch of black at base of bill extending back to wattle; feathered yellow stripe originating below eye (above wattle) curves up over and behind rear ear-coverts, enclosing small patch of dusky olive-grey on upper ear-coverts; rump and uppertail-coverts brownish grey to olive-grey; upperwing and tail dark olive-brown to dark brown, with yellow-olive edges on wing-coverts and remiges (contrasting olive-yellow panel on folded wing), and yellow-olive edges on tail; underparts slightly paler and greyer than upperparts, olive-grey with yellow tinge, slightly greyer on chin and throat, diffuse and faint darker mottling or scaling on chin to breast and flanks; thighs light grey-brown, undertail light grey-brown, underwing off-white to buff-white with broad light grey-brown trailing edge and tip; iris dark brown to blue-grey, orbital ring yellow-orange; bill black, gape orange-yellow; legs slate-grey to blue-grey, soles yellow. Sexes alike in plumage, male slightly larger than female; female possibly generally more yellowish, especially below, but confirmation needed. Juvenile is like adult but duller and darker, with smaller wattle, also less olive above, with top of head and neck strongly barred or scaled with dark olive-brown, upperparts brownish with faint olive wash, and paler and less strongly olive below, chin to breast much more strongly mottled grey, merging to more yellow-olive on belly, vent and flanks and light buff-brown undertail-coverts; immature plumage, if present, undescribed.

Wallis and Futuna Is; E Fiji (Lau Group); Samoa (Savaii, Upolu and offshore islets, including Nu’utele, Namua, Fanuatapu, Manono and Apolima); American Samoa (Tutuila and associated islets, and Manua Is); and Tonga (Vava’u Group, Ha’apai Group and Tongatapu Group).

Wide range of habitats, including mangroves (from seaward to landward edges), open coastal forest, Casuarina forest, lowland, foothill and tall and low montane forest (including stunted moss forest on highest peaks), forest edge, and modified and artificial landscapes, including secondary vegetation (especially with coconuts), mixed and pure plantations of introduced pines (Pinus) and coconut plantations, sugar-cane crops; common in gardens in cities, towns and villages. In analysis of habitat use on Tutuila (American Samoa), appeared to depend on relatively undisturbed native forest despite use of wide range of habitats, and appeared to discriminate less among conditions within native forest than between native and non-native habitats; in non-native habitats, most abundant in plantations surrounded by native forest and with no introduced birds, and virtually absent from village habitats where abundance of introduced birds greatest. In Vava’u Group (Tonga), increased in abundance in less disturbed habitats, and much more common in mature forest, or submature/disturbed mature forest, than in villages, open plantations or wooded plantations/early successional forest. In Samoa, numbers in partly logged forest only slightly lower than those in unmodified forest; in another study, relative abundance high in forest, cleared forest and cultivated land, but low in urban habitat. Some variation between populations apparent. Preferred habitat on small offshore islands in Samoa varied: most abundant in tall, protected forest in interior on Nu’utele; slightly more abundant in successional forest than in plantation forest on Manono; and most abundant in native ridge forest and scarce in Cocos-dominated vegetation of the beach on Namua. In Fiji most abundant in coastal coconut plantations on Lakeba. In Samoa abundant at all altitudes; in Vava’u Group, in Tonga, absent or scarce on many small islands.

No information; probably resident, with some local movements or dispersal to exploit flowering plants. On Tutuila, a broad, low increase in numbers through much of the hot wet season (roughly Dec–Apr) and a higher peak at some sites in Dec–Jan; changes probably relate mainly to local movements and concentrations of birds to exploit seasonally abundant food sources. In Samoa, recorded as apparent visitor on two (of seven) small offshore islands off Upolu, 0·7 km and 1·3 km over water from nearest populations.

Primarily nectar, but also takes many arthropods (mainly insects, including caterpillars , and spiders), more so when breeding, and some soft fruits and berries; occasionally small lizards, including geckos (Gekkonidae). Nectar taken from wide range of flowering shrubs, trees and palms, e.g. in American Samoa from small flowers of nutmeg (Myristica inutilis) to the large crimson blooms of coral tree (Erythrina variegata), including asi (Syzgium inophylloides) and Barringtonia species, also from cultivated plants (including banana and coconut palms). In Fiji and Samoa, forages mainly in canopy and subcanopy, less often in lower storeys; occasionally forages on ground. Highly active , constantly flitting between flowering trees and shrubs, probing flowers and often hanging to do so; searches along branches and through foliage to glean arthropods; also sallies for flying arthropods, including moths (Lepidoptera). Bold, conspicuous. Usually in small groups of 3–4 individuals, but often singly or in twos (possibly pairs), and can congregate in small noisy flocks of 8–10 birds, and sometimes larger numbers (e.g. several dozen), in flowering plants (particularly in non-breeding periods). Aggressive, chasing and fighting with conspecifics and other species, and often displaces or chases Myzomela; attempts to defend nectar sources from Red-vented Bulbul (Pycnonotus cafer); reported as driving off mynas (Acridotheres) and Spotted Doves (Spilopelia chinensis).

Noisy , with variety of loud, vibrant, typically chiming or melodious vocalizations, usually in varied series; one of first birds to call in dawn chorus, and sometimes heard at night. A common call is a ringing “kee-kow”, “ee-aa-oo” or “ke-too, ke-too”, repeated often; and song described as “ti-ti-tui-tui-tur-twee” or gurgling whistled “churwee-churwee-churdle-twee-twur”. Loud bubbling alarm calls characteristic, typically given in response to predator, such as Common Barn-owl (Tyto alba); said to give soft liquid sucking notes in response to perched predator, such as goshawk (Accipiter), and loud, rolling bell-like call when predator in flight. Other calls include: whistling “ki-ki-ki-ki-ki-ki”; varied musical or squawking whistles (possibly describing song); scolding and churring notes; brief, moderately high-pitched “cheew”; and subdued “kluk” intermittently during foraging. Duetting reported: birds usually on same branch, and maximum of 1 m apart, repeat loud, mellow, antiphonal patterns (somewhat more complex in Samoa than in Fiji); also duet in unison.

Breeds all year in Samoa, possibly with peaks in May–Jul and Oct–Nov, nest-building recorded Jan–Feb, dependent young mid-Jun and juveniles Feb and Oct, and specimens with definite indications of breeding Apr, Jun–Jul and Dec–Jan; in Tonga, eggs Aug, nestlings Jun and Aug, and fledglings May and Nov. Territorial when breeding, driving larger species away from nest vicinity and physically attacking smaller birds (including Myzomela cardinalis). Nest rather fragile and cup-shaped, made of woven fine grass, vine tendrils, casuarina needles, other fibres and rootlets, often with spider web draped over exterior, in wet forest outside of nest sometimes heavily draped with green and moss-like liverworts; typically suspended by rim from horizontal fork in branch of shrub or tree 1–15 m above ground and well hidden in dense foliage; of 13 nests on ‘Eua (Tonga), mean height 3 m and nine of the nests in Citrus tree; sometimes uses site of previous nest, even building over remnants of earlier one. Clutch normally one egg, sometimes two; no information on incubation and nestling periods; both parents feed nestlings and fledglings, the latter dependent for fairly long time.

Not globally threatened (Least Concern). Restricted range species: present in Fiji EBA, Samoan Islands EBA, and in Wallis and Futuna Secondary Area and in Tonga Secondary Area. Widespread and generally common or abundant over most of range. Estimated population in American Samoa 550,000 birds; considered the commonest landbird in American Samoa, and on Tutuila mean abundance at survey sites ranged from 0·25 to 18·88 birds per eight-minute survey; in survey of seven small offshore Samoan islands, the most abundant species on five islands. Tutuila population apparently reduced, after hurricanes, but recovering. Abundant on Futuna and Alofi. Little-understood variation in distribution and abundance on islands throughout range, and absent from many islands where it may otherwise be expected to occur, including larger islands, e.g. on Vatoa (in Lau Group, Fiji), on Kadavu (where replaced by Meliphacator provocator), and absent N & S outliers of Tonga. Possibly suffering adverse impact from introduced bird species in American Samoa: considered more common around villages in Manu’a Is, where no introduced birds present, than on Tutuila, where introduced Red-vented Bulbul, Common Myna (Acridotheres tristis) and Jungle Myna (Acridotheres fuscus) are common, but no clear evidence that introduced species have restricted distribution of this or other honeyeater species. Nevertheless, in non-native forest found to be more abundant on Manono (Samoa) than in similar habitats on the large islands of Upolu and Tutuila, where introduced bird species are present.