Savanna Nightjar Caprimulgus affinis Scientific name definitions

20–26 cm; male 54–86 g, female 75–110 g. Sexually dimorphic. Upperparts brown, speckled whitish or cinnamon and streaked blackish brown; pale buffish, cinnamon or whitish nuchal collar; lesser coverts brown speckled pale buff, rest of wing coverts paler, boldly spotted pale buff; scapulars blackish brown, broadly edged buff or whitish on outer webs; buffish submoustachial stripe and small white patch on either side of lower throat; underparts brown, barred, speckled and spotted buff and cinnamon, becoming buff barred brown on belly and flanks. Male has large white spot on four outermost primaries, and two outermost tail feathers are generally white, tipped or edged brownish; female has buffish wing spots and no white in tail. Immature similar to adult female but paler, grayer-brown. Iris dark brown, bill blackish, legs and feet brown.

Less variegated than Indian Nightjar (Caprimulgus asiaticus), with narrower nuchal collar and weaker spotting on wing coverts; male of that species often has smaller white wing spots, and two outermost tail feathers are broadly tipped white. Slightly smaller than Jungle Nightjar (Caprimulgus indicus), with wing coverts less heavily spotted and fewer white tips to tail feathers in male. Slightly smaller, grayer and less variegated than Large-tailed Nightjar (Caprimulgus macrurus), of which male has white tips to two outermost tail feathers.

Savanna Nightjar has often been considered conspecific with Chirruping Nightjar (Caprimulgus griseatus), but is here split mainly on the basis of strong differences in vocalizations (1 Sangster, G., Cancino, K. and Hutchinson, R. (2021). Taxonomic revision of the Savanna Nightjar (Caprimulgus affinis) complex based on vocalizations reveals three species. Avian Res 12, 54. Close ). In their analysis of the Caprimulgus affinis species complex, Sangster et al. (1 Sangster, G., Cancino, K. and Hutchinson, R. (2021). Taxonomic revision of the Savanna Nightjar (Caprimulgus affinis) complex based on vocalizations reveals three species. Avian Res 12, 54. Close ) identified three vocal groups that were statistically different from each other, consisting of "Northern" birds (monticolus, amoyensis, and stictomus), "Southern" birds (affinis, propinquus, undulatus, kasuidori, and timorensis), and Philippine birds (griseatus); mindanensis is very poorly known and was not included in the study, but is here provisionally grouped with griseatus. While Sangster et al. (1 Sangster, G., Cancino, K. and Hutchinson, R. (2021). Taxonomic revision of the Savanna Nightjar (Caprimulgus affinis) complex based on vocalizations reveals three species. Avian Res 12, 54. Close ) recommended each of these three groups be recognized as distinct species, the vocalizations between the "Northern" and "Southern" groups are very similar, and until further work is done to confirm the importance of the minor differences identified in the analyses in species recognition, we are only recognizing Caprimulgus affinis and Caprimulgus griseatus for the time being (2 Clements, J. F., P. C. Rasmussen, T. S. Schulenberg, M. J. Iliff, T. A. Fredericks, J. A. Gerbracht, D. Lepage, S. M. Billerman, B. L. Sullivan, and C. L. Wood (2023). The eBird/Clements checklist of Birds of the World: v2023. Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA. Close ).

The "Northern" (monticolus, amoyensis, and stictomus) and "Southern" (affinis, propinquus, undulatus, kasuidori, timorensis, griseatus, and mindanensis) have sometimes been recognized as different species on the basis of morphological differences, with "Northern" birds described as being larger and browner in plumage (3 Peters, J. L. (1940). Check-list of Birds of the World. Volume 4. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, USA. Close , 4 Howard, R., and A. Moore (1991). A complete checklist of birds of the world. 2nd Edition. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ). However, given similarity of vocalizations, and the fact that the transition between the two groups appears to be partially clinal (5 Mayr, E. (1944). The birds of Timor and Sumba. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 83(2):123–194. Close ), they have more recently been considered conspecific (e.g., 6 Dickinson, E. C., and J. V. Remsen, Editors (2013). The Howard and Moore Complete Checklist of the Birds of the World. Fourth edition. Volume 1. Aves Press, Eastbourne, UK. Close ).

Two distinct subspecies groups differ significantly in size and color: subspecies variation within smaller, grayer southern populations (affinis group) includes overall coloration, color of markings on upperparts, and amount of white on wings and tail; subspecies differences within larger, browner northern populations (monticolus group) concern coloration only.

Subspecies undulatus and kasuidori are sometimes subsumed within nominate. Populations from northeastern India to Thailand formerly separated as subspecies burmanicus, but generally indistinguishable from monticolus (6 Dickinson, E. C., and J. V. Remsen, Editors (2013). The Howard and Moore Complete Checklist of the Birds of the World. Fourth edition. Volume 1. Aves Press, Eastbourne, UK. Close ). Birds from southern Sulawesi may represent an undescribed taxon.

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EBIRD GROUP (POLYTYPIC)

Savanna Nightjar (Northern) Caprimulgus affinis [monticolus Group]

Available illustrations of subspecies in this group

• eBird map
• 19 photos
• 11 recordings

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SUBSPECIES

Caprimulgus affinis monticolus Scientific name definitions

Systematics History

Caprimulgus monticolus Franklin, 1831, Proceedings of the Committee of Science and Correspondence of the Zoological Society of London 1(10):116. Type locality listed as "Ganges between Calcutta and Benares" [=Ganges between Kokata and Varanasi] (7 Franklin, J. (1831) Catalogue of birds (arranged systematically) which were collected on the Ganges between Calcutta and Benares, and in the Vindhyian hillls between the latter place and Gurrah Mundela, on the Nerbudda. Proceedings of the Committee of Science and Correspondence of the Zoological Society of London 1: 114-125. Close ).

Synonym:

Caprimulgus monticolus burmanicus Baker, 1931, Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club 51:102. Type locality given as "Upper Chindwin, Burma" [=Upper Chindwin River, Myanmar] (8 Baker, E.C.S. (1931). Notes on the races of Caprimulgus monticolus with a description of a new subspecies named C. m. burmanicus. Bull. Brit. Orn. Club. 1: 100-103. Close ).

Distribution

Northeastern Pakistan and India east to Myanmar and south to Thailand and Cambodia.

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SUBSPECIES

Caprimulgus affinis amoyensis Scientific name definitions

Systematics History

Caprimulgus monticolus amoyensis Baker, 1931, Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club 51:102. Type locality given as "Amoy, S.E. China" [=Xiamen, Fujian, China] (8 Baker, E.C.S. (1931). Notes on the races of Caprimulgus monticolus with a description of a new subspecies named C. m. burmanicus. Bull. Brit. Orn. Club. 1: 100-103. Close ).

Distribution

Southeastern China and northern Vietnam.

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SUBSPECIES

Caprimulgus affinis stictomus Scientific name definitions

Systematics History

Caprimulgus stictomus Swinhoe, 1863, Ibis 5(19):250. Type locality given as "Ape's Hill, Formosa" [=Shoushan, Taiwan] (9 Swinhoe, R. (1863). The ornithology of Formosa, or Taiwan. [Part 2]. Ibis (1)5:250–311, plate 6. Close ).

Distribution

Taiwan.

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EBIRD GROUP (POLYTYPIC)

Savanna Nightjar (Sunda) Caprimulgus affinis [affinis Group]

Available illustrations of subspecies in this group

• eBird map
• 18 photos
• 2 recordings

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SUBSPECIES

Caprimulgus affinis affinis Scientific name definitions

Systematics History

Caprimulgus affinis Horsfield, 1821, Transactions of the Linnean Society of London 13:142. Type locality given as Java (10 Horsfield, T. (1821). Systematic Arrangement and Description of Birds from the Island of Java. Transactions of the Linnean Society of London 13(1):133-200 Close ).

Distribution

Southern Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo, and Java east to Lombok, and possibly southern Sulawesi.

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SUBSPECIES

Caprimulgus affinis propinquus Scientific name definitions

Systematics History

Caprimulgus affinis propinquus Riley, 1918, Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 31:155. Type locality given as "Parigi, Celebes" [=Parigi, Sulawesi, Indonesia] (11 Riley, J. H. (1918). Two new genera and eight new birds from Celebes. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 31:155–160. Close ).

Distribution

Sulawesi (possibly except Makassar region of southwestern peninsula).

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SUBSPECIES

Caprimulgus affinis undulatus Scientific name definitions

Systematics History

Caprimulgus affinis undulatus Mayr, 1944, Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 83(2):152. Type locality given as "Flores, Lesser Sunda Islands" (5 Mayr, E. (1944). The birds of Timor and Sumba. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 83(2):123–194. Close ).

Distribution

Sumbawa, Komodo and Flores (W Lesser Sundas).

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SUBSPECIES

Caprimulgus affinis kasuidori Scientific name definitions

Systematics History

Caprimulgus affinis kasuidori Hachisuka, 1932, Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club 52:81. Type locality given as "Savu Island" [=Sawu Island] (12 Hachisuka, M. (1932). Description of a new race of Caprimulgus affinis from Savu Island. Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club 52:81 Close ).

Distribution

Sumba and Sawu (central Lesser Sundas).

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SUBSPECIES

Caprimulgus affinis timorensis Scientific name definitions

Systematics History

Caprimulgus affinis timorensis Mayr, 1944, Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 83(2):134,152. Type locality given as "Noilmina, Timor Island" [=Noel Mina, Timor] (5 Mayr, E. (1944). The birds of Timor and Sumba. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 83(2):123–194. Close ).

Distribution

Alor, Timor, Roti, and Kisar (eastern Lesser Sundas).

Savanna Nightjar and Chirruping Nightjar (Caprimulgus griseatus), with which it has formerly been conspecific, have not been included together in molecular phylogenetic studies, but are presumably closely related to each other. Outside of these two species, Savanna Nightjar appears to be closely related to Egyptian Nightjar (Caprimulgus aegyptius), with these two in turn sister to Montane Nightjar (Caprimulgus poliocephalus) and Fiery-necked Nightjar (Caprimulgus pectoralis) (13 Han, K. L., M. B. Robbins and M. J. Braun. (2010). A multi-gene estimate of phylogeny in the nightjars and nighthawks (Caprimulgidae). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 55 (2):443-453. Close ). Further work is needed to resolve relationships between Savanna Nightjar and Chirruping Nightjar, and with other members of the genus that have not been studied.

Himalayan foothills from Pakistan east and most of India east through Myanmar to southeastern China and Taiwan, and south through Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam. Disjunctly in southern Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo, Java, Sulawesi, and the Lesser Sundas.

Mainly grassland, grassy plains and open woodland and forest, often with scrub or rocky outcrops; also arable land, stony or sparsely vegetated hillsides and barren ridges, edges of swamps and mangroves, sandy or shingly beaches, bare sand or riverbanks, dry stony riverbeds with growth of scrub and grass, coastal scrubland, and urban habitats, including cities. Recorded from sea level to 1,500 m, possibly to 2,000 m.

Poorly known. Southern populations that form affinis group appear to be largely sedentary, though a vagrant (possibly nominate subspecies) recorded on Christmas Island in May and October 1994 and possibly November 1996. Subspecis monticolus is sedentary and locally migratory, e.g. in northeastern Pakistan apparently a summer breeding visitor only, arriving March–April and departing October–November, probably moving through Punjab plains. Subspecies amoyensis possibly sedentary. Subspecies stictomus possibly sedentary and partially migratory, as some thought to move southwest after breeding season and winter in Laos and southeastern Thailand.

Diet includes moths, mantises, beetles, termites and flying ants. Forages in flight , often high above ground, hawking after prey over forests, cultivated areas, cities, towns, villages, airports and golf courses. Also feeds on insects attracted to artificial lights. Drinks in flight. Large feeding flocks often occur, especially during migration.

Vocal Development

No information.

Vocal Array

Song. A loud, raspy note cheek! or tschreep! repeated for long periods at intervals of about 2 s. Note has a duration of ⁓0.2 s and reaches a maximum frequency of ⁓5 kHz. On sonogram, note shape is very distinctive and shows as a large noisy V-shape followed at the upper end by a second smaller V. Birds utter the raspy note with wide-opened bill without further body movements . In one night, up to 13,550 Song notes have been counted (14 Liang, SH., Walther, B.A., Jen, CH. et al. (2020). Acoustic preadaptation to transmit vocal individuality of savanna nightjars in noisy urban environments. Sci Rep 10, 18159. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-75371-4 Close ).

Chuk. A subdued chuk (XC812448) repeated several times at irregular intervals. On sonogram shows as an indistinct narrow reversed V-shape with a duration of 0.03‒0.04 s and reaching a maximum frequency of about 3.5 kHz.

Other. Low chuckles and soft screeches when flushed have also been described (15 Ali, S., and S. D. Ripley (1983) Handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan. Volume 4. Second edition. Oxford University Press, Delhi. Close ,16 Cleere, N. (1998). Nightjars. A Guide to Nightjars and Related Nightbirds. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, UK. Close ).

Geographic Variation

Formerly treated as conspecific with Chirruping Nightjar (Caprimulgus griseatus), but voice quite different. Song of Chirruping Nightjar lacks the raspy tonal quality and is audibly disyllabic: chee-weet. Within present species, northern group (consisting of the subspecies monticolus, amoyensis and stictomus) and southern group (consisting of affinis, kasuidori, timorensis and propinquus) also differ in voice, albeit somewhat more subtly. Song of southern group is lower pitched (despite being smaller in size), typically staying below 5 kHz versus above 5 kHz for northern group (with some overlap). A detailed vocal analysis (1 Sangster, G., Cancino, K. and Hutchinson, R. (2021). Taxonomic revision of the Savanna Nightjar (Caprimulgus affinis) complex based on vocalizations reveals three species. Avian Res 12, 54. Close ) revealed that out of 15 sound parameters 2 frequency parameters (of the second smaller V-shape) had non-overlapping ranges, and a PCA plot allowed separation of both groups.

Phenology

Little information. Recordings of Song are available for all months of the year, but there are regional differences. In regions where only a summer visitor, Song evidently only heard during those months. Elsewhere mainly vocal during the breeding period (15 Ali, S., and S. D. Ripley (1983) Handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan. Volume 4. Second edition. Oxford University Press, Delhi. Close ). In Singapore, Song was heard in all months except June-August (17 Wells, D. R. (1999). The Birds of the Thai-Malay Peninsula. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ), but recent recordings from that region also available for July-August.

Daily Pattern of Vocalizing

Typically starts singing early at dusk, can be heard intermittently during the night, and vocal until just after dawn. Especially vocal in crepuscular hours during the breeding period, and also increased vocal activity during moonlit nights (15 Ali, S., and S. D. Ripley (1983) Handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan. Volume 4. Second edition. Oxford University Press, Delhi. Close ).

Places of Vocalizing

Sings both in flight and when perched. Perched birds may sit on the ground, in the top of low scrub or on man-made structures such as poles or roof tops. In Taiwan, has successfully colonized urban areas using roof tops, and its loud Song (measured up to 98 dB) has even been considered a nuisance there (18 Lo, L. C. & Chan, T. Y. (2010). Geographical distribution of the savanna nightjar (Caprimulgus affinis) and its impact on citizens in the Kaohsiung Metropolitan Area. City Dev. 10, 97–124. Close ).

Sex Differences

No information. It is assumed that Song is by the male bird.

Social Content and Presumed Functions of Vocalizations

Little information. Song of several individuals can often be heard from a given location. If Song has indeed a territorial function, territories must be quite small. Chuk call has been heard from foraging birds at close range.

Foraging birds in flight may make some faint clapping sounds (XC812448) with the wings, only audible at close range.

Breeds June–July in northern Pakistan, April–August in India and Himalayas, March–December in Java, and April–January in Sumatra. Nest site in open, at base of tree, hidden among scrub or tufts of grass, or beneath bush; no nest, eggs laid on ground, often among stones. Clutch 1–2 eggs, elliptical, salmon-pink or pale buffish, spotted and blotched reddish-brown and deep red; both sexes incubate, period not documented; adults threatened at nest-site perform injury-feigning distraction display; chick nidicolous, not described, fledging period not documented.

Not globally threatened (Least Concern, but status has not been evaluated separately from the formerly conspecific Chirruping Nightjar (Caprimulgus griseatus)). Locally common to common throughout its range. Abundant passage migrant and common breeding bird in northern Pakistan; probably not uncommon in southeastern China; resident in Taiwan; uncommon to locally common in northern and central Thailand; locally common throughout much of Wallacea, Philippines and lowlands of Borneo; common in lowlands of Sumatra, Java and Bali. Tolerant of wide range of habitats and apparently highly adaptable; often occurs in urban environments, e.g. in western Indonesia frequents towns and cities in several regions of Sumatra and Java. Occurs in many protected areas throughout wide range, e.g., Chitwan National Park (Nepal), Panti Forest Reserve (Malaysia), Baluran National Park (Java) and Bali Barat ­National Park.