Southern Giant-Petrel Macronectes giganteus Scientific name definitions

The Southern Giant-Petrel is, as the name implies, the southern half of the giant-petrel superspecies. Both species are broadly sympatric over much of the Southern Oceans but the Southern Giant-Petrel is the more Antarctic of the two species. It breeds primarily in the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans as well as coastal extreme southern South America and Antarctica. The largest members of their family, Procellariidae, the giant-petrels are behaviorally distinct. They feed primarily on carrion for which they scavenge by plying the near shore waters of Southern Ocean coastlines searching for seal and penguin carcasses that have been washed ashore. Generally the larger of the two species, the Southern Giant-Petrel has two distinct color morphs, dark and white, the white morph accounting for up to 15% of some breeding populations.

85–100 cm (1 Shirihai, H. (2007). A Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife. The Birds and Mammals of the Antarctic Continent and the Southern Ocean. Second edition. A. & C. Black, London, UK. Close ); male 5 kg, female 3.8 kg; wingspan 150–210 cm (1 Shirihai, H. (2007). A Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife. The Birds and Mammals of the Antarctic Continent and the Southern Ocean. Second edition. A. & C. Black, London, UK. Close ). Huge , mollymawk-sized petrel with large and strong bill. Adult plumage is generally greyish brown, paler and even largely whitish but more or less spotted on head to upper breast, underparts dark towards rear; base of outer remiges silvery on underwing; iris dark brown to, more often, pale grey ; bill very pale brownish to pale pinkish, with scarcely darker but more greyish or greenish-grey tip; legs dark grey to dusky straw-grey. White morph forms up to 15% of individuals in certain localities; plumage entirely white except variable number of dark brown to black feathers scattered over body, wing-coverts and sometimes flight feathers (1 Shirihai, H. (2007). A Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife. The Birds and Mammals of the Antarctic Continent and the Southern Ocean. Second edition. A. & C. Black, London, UK. Close ); diagnostic, as white morph absent in M. halli, and birds with all-white head and neck probably also only referrable to present species (1 Shirihai, H. (2007). A Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife. The Birds and Mammals of the Antarctic Continent and the Southern Ocean. Second edition. A. & C. Black, London, UK. Close ). Otherwise best separated from M. halli by bill colour; also note contrasts in body plumage and the pattern of the head and underwing (2 Jiguet, F. (2000). The two giant petrels. Birding World. 13(3): 108–115. Close ). Female averages smaller, especially in bill length, but also tarsus and tail measurements, and mass (1 Shirihai, H. (2007). A Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife. The Birds and Mammals of the Antarctic Continent and the Southern Ocean. Second edition. A. & C. Black, London, UK. Close ); in adults, male 40% heavier than female and consistently larger in all measurements (by 5–15%) (3 Copello, S., Quintana, F. and Somoza, G. (2006). Sex determination and sexual size-dimorphism in Southern Giant-Petrels (Macronectes giganteus) from Patagonia,Argentina. Emu. 106(2): 141–146. Close ). Juvenile uniform blackish sooty-brown , with dark iris; progressively acquires more pale brown and white in plumage, with full adult plumage perhaps only achieved when 7–13 years old (1 Shirihai, H. (2007). A Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife. The Birds and Mammals of the Antarctic Continent and the Southern Ocean. Second edition. A. & C. Black, London, UK. Close ).

Circumpolar in Southern Ocean, breeding in Antarctica and from S Chile and S Argentina E through subantarctic islands to Heard I and Macquarie I.

Marine , ranging from coastal to pelagic waters; occurs S into regions of pack ice and N into subtropical zone. Breeds on open coastal plateaux and also headlands, usually occupying grassy or bare ground, often in exposed situations, provided they are ice-free (6 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ), but sometimes within dense Poa tussock grass (1 Shirihai, H. (2007). A Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife. The Birds and Mammals of the Antarctic Continent and the Southern Ocean. Second edition. A. & C. Black, London, UK. Close ). Feeds along coast during most of year.

Adults probably move little, dispersing only to adjacent waters and generally keeping further S than M. hallli, although there is some evidence that numbers at Antaractic sites are reduced in midwinter (6 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ); juveniles may follow prevailing winds E around Southern Ocean, perhaps completing several circumnavigations prior to their first return to the colony (7 Trivelpiece, S.G. and Trivelpiece, W.Z. (1998). Post-fledging dispersal of Southern Giant Petrels Macronectes giganteus banded at Admiralty Bay, King George Island, Antarctica. Marine Orn.. 26(1–2): 63–68. Close ). Immatures move further N than adults, regularly reaching 20º S (6 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ) and subtropical seas, typically following cold-water currents off S Africa and W South America, and recorded N to St Helena (15º S) in C Atlantic (8 Prater, T. (2012). Important Bird Areas. St Helena. British Birds 105:638–653. Close ). In Pacific, recorded N to New Guinea, Fiji, Tahiti, Raoul I (Kermadecs) (9 Clifford, H.J. and Lawrie, D.A. (1997). New and rare bird records for Raoul Island. Notornis. 44(3): 171–173. Close ) and Easter I (10 Marin, M. and Cáceres, P. (2010). Sobre las aves de la Isla de Pascua. Boletín del Museo Nacional de Historia Natural (Chile). 59: 75–95. Close ), and is rare visitor to SW Indian Ocean, N to Seychelles (11 Safford, R. J., and A. F. A. Hawkins, Editors (2013). The Birds of Africa. Volume 8. The Malagasy Region. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Most ringing recoveries of birds banded in Indian Ocean have been in Australian and New Zealand waters (7 Trivelpiece, S.G. and Trivelpiece, W.Z. (1998). Post-fledging dispersal of Southern Giant Petrels Macronectes giganteus banded at Admiralty Bay, King George Island, Antarctica. Marine Orn.. 26(1–2): 63–68. Close , 12 Patterson, D.L. and Hunter, S. (2000). Giant petrel Macronectes spp. band recovery analysis from the International Giant Petrel Banding Project, 1988/89. Marine Orn.. 28(1): 69–74. Close ) (nevertheless, a bird ringed on Macquarie was recovered in Uruguay and birds ringed in Argentina, South Orkneys, South Georgia and Antarctic Peninsula have been recovered in Brazil) (13 Olmos, F. (2002). Non-breeding seabirds in Brazil: a review of band recoveries. Ararajuba. 10(1): 31–42. Close , 14 Carlos, C.J., Voisin, J.-F. and Vooren, C.M. (2005). Records of Southern Giant Petrel Macronectes giganteus solanderi and Northern Giant Petrel M. halli off southern Brazil. Bull. Brit. Orn. Club. 125(4): 288–292. Close ), while young ringed at Patagonian colonies have also been recovered in these areas, but are mainly resighted in SW Atlantic waters (15 Copello, S., Rabufetti, F. and Quintana, F. (2009). Post-fledging dispersal of Southern Giant Petrels Macronectes giganteus from north Patagonian colonies. Ardeola. 56(1): 103–112. Close ), and birds ringed in Antarctica have been recovered in wide variety of areas including Australia, South Africa, New Zealand and South America (16 Sander, M., Garcia, S.A., Carneiro, A.P.B., Cristofoli, S.I. and Polito, M.J. (2010). Band recoveries and juvenile dispersal of Southern Giant Petrels Macronectes giganteus marked as chicks in Antarctica by the Brazilian Antarctic Program (1984–1993). Marine Orn.. 38(2): 119–124. Close ). No definite records from N Hemisphere, though a bird off Ushant, France, in Nov 1967, was formerly accepted as M. halli (now only as Macronectes sp.) (17 Snow, D. W., and C. M. Perrins, Editors (1998). The Birds of the Western Palearctic. Concise Edition. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ); another giant petrel at Midway Atoll, Hawaii, in 1959, 1961 and 1962 not identified to specific level.

Carrion , especially carcasses of seals (Arctocephalus) but also whales (Eubalaena australis) (18 Petry, M.V., Souza Petersen, E., Martins Scherer, J.F., Krüger, L. and Scherer, A.L. (2010). Notas sobre a ocorrência e dieta de Macronectes giganteus (Procellariiformes: Procellariidae) no Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil [Notes on the occurrence and diet of Southern Giant Petrels, Macronectes giganteus in Rio Grande do Sul, southern Brazil]. Revista Brasileira de Ornitologia. 18(3): 237–239. Close ), penguins (Eudyptes, Spheniscus magellanicus (19 Punta, G. and Herrera, G. (1995). Predation by Southern Giant Petrels Macronectes giganteus on adult Imperial Cormorants Phalacrocorax atriceps. Marine Orn.. 23(2): 166–167. Close ), young Aptenodytes) and petrels (Daption, Fulmarus, Thalassoica, Pachyptila, Pelecanoides); some birds killed by battering or drowning, e.g. Daption, Black-faced Sheathbill (Chionis minor) (20 Huyser, O. (1999). Predation upon a Lesser Sheathbill by a Southern Giant Petrel. Ostrich. 70(3–4): 238. Close ), Imperial Shags (Phalacrocorax atriceps), Kelp Gulls (Larus dominicanus) (19 Punta, G. and Herrera, G. (1995). Predation by Southern Giant Petrels Macronectes giganteus on adult Imperial Cormorants Phalacrocorax atriceps. Marine Orn.. 23(2): 166–167. Close ) and even immatures of some smaller albatrosses (Diomedea), which are grasped by head (1 Shirihai, H. (2007). A Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife. The Birds and Mammals of the Antarctic Continent and the Southern Ocean. Second edition. A. & C. Black, London, UK. Close , 21 Forster, I.P. and Phillips, R.A. (2009). Influence of nest location, density and topography on breeding success in the Black-browed Albatross Thalassarche melanophris. Marine Orn.. 37(2): 213–217. Close ). Also takes cephalopods, krill, offal, discarded fish and galley refuse from ships; some food probably located by smell (6 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Perhaps some variation in dietary composition by season and perhaps region, with summer dominated by birds (mostly penguins), followed by crustacea (mainly krill), fish, mammals and cephalopods (22 Ridoux, V. (1994). The diets and dietary segregation of seabirds at the subantarctic Crozet Islands. Marine Ornithology 22(1):1–192. Close ), whereas winter diet is poorly known, more fish may be taken at South Georgia, although penguins remain important on Marion I at this season; males take more carrion and less marine food than females, although sexual differences in foraging behaviour are less marked than in M. halli, and latter is also typically more gregarious while foraging (6 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Recent work in Patagonia and Antarctica using stable isotopes suggests that sex-specific differences in foraging are noticeable only in summer and that chicks are preferentially fed penguin and seal prey, which are less important in adult diet (23 Raya Rey, A., Polito, M., Archuby, D. and Coria, N. (2012). Stable isotopes identify age- and sex-specific dietary partitioning and foraging habitat segregation in southern giant petrels breeding in Antarctica and southern Patagonia. Marine Biology. 159: 1317–1326. Close ); study using satellite telemetry off Argentina found that females spent more time in the shelf break and exploited deeper waters than males, whereas males spent more time in coastal areas and showed higher spatial overlap with areas of high squid density than females (24 Copello, S., Dogliotti, A.I., Gagliardini, D.A. and Quintana, F. (2011). Oceanographic and biological landscapes used by the Southern Giant Petrel during the breeding season at the Patagonian Shelf. Marine Biology. 158: 1247–1257. Close ). During breeding season, females undertake longer foraging trips than males (25 Patterson, D.L. and Fraser, W.R. (2000). Foraging movements of Southern Giant Petrels Macronectes giganteus on the Antarctic Peninsula: preliminary findings of a satellite-tracking study during the breeding season. Marine Orn.. P. 142 in:. Close ). At sea feeds mostly by surface-seizing, which technique may be used to take sleeping or disabled birds (6 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ), but also observed pursuit-diving to forage on carcasses (26 van den Hoff, J. and Newbery, K. (2006). Southern Giant Petrels Macronectes giganteus diving on submerged carrion. Marine Orn.. 34(1): 61–64. Close ). Associates with cetaceans, including killer whales (Orcinus orca) (27 Williams, A. J., B. M. Dyer, R. M. Randall, and J. Komen (1990). Killer whales Orcinus orca and seabirds: “play”, predation and association. Marine Ornithology 18(1):37–41. Close ) and minke whales (Balaenoptera acutorostrata) (28 Hodges, C. L., and E. J. Woehler (1994). Associations between seabirds and cetaceans in the Australian sector of the southern Indian Ocean. Marine Ornithology 22(2):205–212. Close ). Frequents trawling grounds and sewage outfalls, and typically occurs alone or in small groups of up to five birds (1 Shirihai, H. (2007). A Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife. The Birds and Mammals of the Antarctic Continent and the Southern Ocean. Second edition. A. & C. Black, London, UK. Close ), although may aggregate into larger groups in non-breeding season (29 Petry, M.V., Martins Scherer, J.F. and Scherer, A.L. (2012). Ocorrência, alimentação e impactos antrópicos de aves marinhas nas praias do litoral do Rio Grande do Sul, sul do Brasil [Occurrence and feeding habits of and human impacts on seabirds on the coast of Rio Grande do Sul, southern Brazil]. Revista Brasileira de Ornitologia. 20(1): 65–70. Close ).

Gives variety of whinnying, growling, guttural and braying calls, the former likened to a neighing colt, generally similar to those of M. halli, although it has been suggested that threat and appeasement displays might be better developed in the present species, which is also considered to have generally softer and higher-pitched vocalizations (6 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close , 1 Shirihai, H. (2007). A Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife. The Birds and Mammals of the Antarctic Continent and the Southern Ocean. Second edition. A. & C. Black, London, UK. Close ). Cat-like mewing sounds given during confrontational displays (1 Shirihai, H. (2007). A Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife. The Birds and Mammals of the Antarctic Continent and the Southern Ocean. Second edition. A. & C. Black, London, UK. Close ). Utter various croaking sounds when competing for food at sea (1 Shirihai, H. (2007). A Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife. The Birds and Mammals of the Antarctic Continent and the Southern Ocean. Second edition. A. & C. Black, London, UK. Close ).

Starts Sept/Oct (typically six weeks later than in M. halli) (1 Shirihai, H. (2007). A Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife. The Birds and Mammals of the Antarctic Continent and the Southern Ocean. Second edition. A. & C. Black, London, UK. Close ), though some birds (often failed breeders from previous season) can arrive at colonies as early as late Jul, with females undertaking 12-day pre-laying exodus, egg-laying lasts c. 1 month (and is typically later at higher latitudes, thus mean dates of 26–29 Sept on Marion I but 8–11 Nov on South Georgia) (6 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ) and in Argentina chicks fledge between mid Mar and late Apr (30 Copello, S. and Quintana, F. (2009). Breeding biology of the Southern Giant Petrel (Macronectes giganteus) in Patagonia, Argentina. Ornitología Neotropical. 20(3): 369–380. Close ). Degree of natal philopatry not accurately known, but suspected to be high (6 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ), although birds have been recovered at colonies up to 1400 km from their natal area (31 Creuwels, J.C.S., Stark, J.S., Petz, W. and van Franeker, J.A. (2004). Southern Giant Petrels Macronectes giganteus starve to death while on the Antarctic continent. Marine Orn.. 32(1): 111–114. Close ). Monogamous and forms long-term pair-bonds (1 Shirihai, H. (2007). A Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife. The Birds and Mammals of the Antarctic Continent and the Southern Ocean. Second edition. A. & C. Black, London, UK. Close ). Forms loose colonies of up to 300 pairs (typically only 40 pairs) (6 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ), occasionally single pairs (32 Coria, N. R., M. Favero, P. Silva, and R. J. Casuax (1995). Breeding birds at Duthoit Point, Nelson Island, South Shetland Islands, Antarctica. Marine Ornithology 23(1):61–64. Close , 33 Coria, N.R., Blendinger, P.G. and Montalti, D. (1996). The breeding birds of Cape Geddes, Laurie Island, South Orkney Islands, Antarctica. Marine Orn.. 24(1–2): 43–44. Close ); nest (constructed by both sexes) is small mound of stones or rough pile of Poa tussock grass, 150 cm wide, with small depression on top (6 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Single white egg, mean size 96·7–109·3 mm × 61·2–70·5 mm (34 Lumpe, P., and K. Weidinger (2000). Distribution, numbers and breeding of birds at the northern ice-free areas of Nelson Island, South Shetland Islands, Antarctica, 1991–1992. Marine Ornithology 28(1):41–46. Close ), mass 260·6 g (6 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ); incubation 55–66 (mean 61) days, with c. 11 stints of 2–12 days becoming shorter as incubation progresses (6 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ); chicks have white down, more ashy grey when older, brooded for 2–3 weeks, fed at any time of day or night, mostly in afternoon and least frequently between 00.00 h and 03.00 h, with male chicks being fed 1·6–2·4 times per day (depending on age) a meal of 170–460 g, whereas female young are fed meals of 130–400 g on average 1·2–3·3 times per day (35 Hunter, S. and Brooke, M. del (1992). The diet of giant petrels Macronectes spp. at Marion Island, southern Indian Ocean. Colonial Waterbirds. 15(1): 56–65. Close ); fledging 104–132 days, with males fledging on average later than females (c. 123 days versus 117 days) and at greater weight, 4840 g versus 4020 g (6 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). One case of chick adoption recorded, but neither of the two young survived to fledge (36 Archuby, D.I., Coria, N.R., Harrington, A., Fusaro, B., Montalti, D. and Favero, M. (2010). Is it possible for a Procellariiform to raise two chicks? A case of chick adoption in southern giant petrels Macronectes giganteus in the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica. Marine Orn.. 38(2): 125–127. Close ). At one Antarctic colony, mean lengths of foraging trips in excess of 200 km were 2600 km and 3000 km over two breeding seasons (25 Patterson, D.L. and Fraser, W.R. (2000). Foraging movements of Southern Giant Petrels Macronectes giganteus on the Antarctic Peninsula: preliminary findings of a satellite-tracking study during the breeding season. Marine Orn.. P. 142 in:. Close ), but in Patagonia maximum distance travelled from the colonies was < 700 km and mean distance was 200 km (37 Quintana, F., Dell’Arciprete, O.P. and Copello, S. (2010). Foraging behavior and habitat use by the Southern Giant Petrel on the Patagonian Shelf. Marine Biology. 157: 515–525. Close ). Breeding success averages an estimated 88% in Argentina (with chick survival 100% after day 45) (30 Copello, S. and Quintana, F. (2009). Breeding biology of the Southern Giant Petrel (Macronectes giganteus) in Patagonia, Argentina. Ornitología Neotropical. 20(3): 369–380. Close ) and 70% at South Georgia, but just 31% on Marion I (6 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ), and recorded as 52% on South Shetland Is (34 Lumpe, P., and K. Weidinger (2000). Distribution, numbers and breeding of birds at the northern ice-free areas of Nelson Island, South Shetland Islands, Antarctica, 1991–1992. Marine Ornithology 28(1):41–46. Close ). Natural predators of eggs and chicks include Kelp Gulls (Larus dominicanus) (38 Yorio, P., Bertellotti, M., Gandini, P. and Frere, E. (1998). Kelp Gulls Larus dominicanus breeding on the Argentine coast: population status and relationship with coastal management and conservation. Marine Orn.. 26(1–2): 11–18. Close ), while climatic events such as blizzards can cause widespread nesting failure (31 Creuwels, J.C.S., Stark, J.S., Petz, W. and van Franeker, J.A. (2004). Southern Giant Petrels Macronectes giganteus starve to death while on the Antarctic continent. Marine Orn.. 32(1): 111–114. Close ). Sexual maturity generally at 4–8 years, although mean is > 11 years on Macquarie I, while first return to colony is when 2·5–5 years old, with some evidence to suggest that males may commence to breed first. Annual adult survival variously estimated at 90–96%, whereas that of pre-breeders is less than 90%, while up to 30% of breeding-age adults may elect to skip a season on South Georgia (6 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ).

Not globally threatened (Least Concern). Formerly classified as Vulnerable. Total population c. 30,575 breeding pairs (based on data from 1999/2000) (39 Patterson, D.L., Woehler, E.J., Croxall, J.P., Cooper, J., Poncet, S., Peter, H.-U., Hunter, S. and Fraser, W.R. (2008). Breeding distribution and population status of the Northern Giant Petrel Macronectes halli and Southern Giant Petrel M. giganteus. Marine Orn.. 36(2): 115–124. Close ) and perhaps 100,000 individuals, and has probably declined by c. 20% over past c. 60 years (6 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Estimated total of 2310 pairs in Argentina (1990–1995, increasing to 2600 pairs in early 2000s) (40 Yorio, P., Frere, E., Gandini, P. and Conway, W. (1999). Status and conservation of seabirds breeding in Argentina. Bird Conservation International. 9(4) :299–314. Close , 41 Quintana, F., Schiavini, A. and Copello, S. (2005). Estado poblacional, ecologia y conservacion del Petrel Gigante del Sur (Macronectes giganteus) en Argentina. El Hornero. 20(1): 25–34. Close ), 8755 pairs in South Orkney Is (where numbers probably fluctuating, e.g. on Laurie I) (33 Coria, N.R., Blendinger, P.G. and Montalti, D. (1996). The breeding birds of Cape Geddes, Laurie Island, South Orkney Islands, Antarctica. Marine Orn.. 24(1–2): 43–44. Close , 42 Coria, N. R., D. Montalti, E. F. Rombola, M. M. Santos, M. I. Garcia Betoño, and M. A. Juares (2011). Birds at Laurie Island, South Orkney Islands, Antarctica: breeding species and their distribution. Marine Ornithology 39(2):207–213. Close ), 6185 pairs in South Shetland Is, and increasing overall on Antarctic Peninsula (43 Lynch, H.J., Naveen, R. and Fagan, W.F. (2008). Censuses of penguin, Blue-eyed Shag Phalacrocorax atriceps and Southern Giant Petrel Macronectes giganteus populations on the Antarctic Peninsula, 21751751–21751757. Marine Orn.. 36(2): 83–97. Close ) (albeit numbers in N of peninsula are decreasing) (44 Woehler, E.J., Cooper, J., Croxall, J.P., Fraser, W.R., Kooyman, G.L., Miller, G.D., Nel, D.C., Patterson, D.L., Peter, H.-U., Ribic, C.A., Trivelpiece, W.Z. and Weimerskirch, H. (2001). A Statistical Assessment of the Status and Trends of Antarctic and Subantarctic Seabirds. Report on SCAR BBS Workshop on Southern Ocean seabird populations. Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research. Close ), but was declining on South Georgia (45 Prince, P. A., and J. P. Croxall (1996). The birds of South Georgia. Bulletin of the British Ornithologists’ Club 116(2):81–104. Close ), where most recent (2007) estimate was of 8700 pairs (46 Clarke, A., J. P. Croxall, S. Poncet, A. R. Martin, and R. Burton (2012). Important Bird Areas: South Georgia. British Birds 105(3):118–144. Close ). Other significant populations include 3600 pairs on Heard I and 2000–2200 pairs on Macquarie I (47 Baker, G. B., R. Gales, S. Hamilton, and V. Wilkinson (2002). Albatrosses and petrels in Australia: a review of their conservation and management. Emu 102(1):71–97. Close ). Widespread, increasing in a few places (e.g. Prince Edward I (48 Ryan, P.G., Cooper, J., Dyer, B.M., Underhill, L.G., Crawford, R.J.M. and Bester, M.N. (2003). Counts of surface-nesting seabirds breeding at Prince Edward Island, summer 284841/842. Afr. Journal Mar. Sci. 25(1): 441–451. Close ), and on Possession I, Crozets) (49 Woehler, E.J. and Croxall, J.P. (1997). The status and trends of Antarctic and sub-Antarctic seabirds. Marine Orn.. 25(1): 43–66. Close , 25 Patterson, D.L. and Fraser, W.R. (2000). Foraging movements of Southern Giant Petrels Macronectes giganteus on the Antarctic Peninsula: preliminary findings of a satellite-tracking study during the breeding season. Marine Orn.. P. 142 in:. Close ), fluctuating in others (e.g. Marion I, where numbers currently falling) (44 Woehler, E.J., Cooper, J., Croxall, J.P., Fraser, W.R., Kooyman, G.L., Miller, G.D., Nel, D.C., Patterson, D.L., Peter, H.-U., Ribic, C.A., Trivelpiece, W.Z. and Weimerskirch, H. (2001). A Statistical Assessment of the Status and Trends of Antarctic and Subantarctic Seabirds. Report on SCAR BBS Workshop on Southern Ocean seabird populations. Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research. Close , 50 Crawford, R.J.M., Cooper, J., Dyer, B.M., and others (2003). [Full list of authors: Crawford, R.J.M., Cooper, J., Dyer, B.M., Greyling, M.D., Klages, N.T.W., Ryan, P.G., Petersen, S.L., Underhill, L.G., Upfold, L., Wilkinson, W., De Villiers, M.S., Du Plessis, S., Du Toit, M., Leshoro, T.M., Makhado, A.B., Mason, M.S., Merkle, D., Tshingana, D., Ward, V.L. & Whittington, P.A.] Populations of surface-nesting seabirds at Marion Island, 1994/95–23973972/3973. Afr. Journal Mar. Sci. 25(1): 427–440. Close , 51 Crawford, R.J.M., Duncombe Rae, C.M., Nel, D.C. and Cooper, J. (2003). Unusual breeding by seabirds at Marion Island during 1997/98. African Journal of Marine Science. 25(1): 453–462. Close ), but has severely declined or disappeared from some sites now much frequented by man, e.g. colony at Pointe Géologie (Adelie Land) down from 69 pairs in 1956 to 14 pairs in 1984, due to proximity of French base and associated disturbance, and numbers in this region declined a further c. 4% between 1985 and 1999 (52 Micol, T. and Jouventin, P. (2001). Long-term population trends in seven Antarctic seabirds at Pointe Géologie (Terre Adélie): human impact compared with environmental change. Polar Biology. 24: 175–185. Close ); recent decline of at least 55% in Australian Antarctic Territory, where population most recently estimated at 197 pairs (47 Baker, G. B., R. Gales, S. Hamilton, and V. Wilkinson (2002). Albatrosses and petrels in Australia: a review of their conservation and management. Emu 102(1):71–97. Close ). Falkland Is formerly held c. 3200 pairs, when some still shot and eggs destroyed each year, as birds alleged to kill lambs, but population most recently (2004/05) estimated at 19,529 pairs (range 18,420–20,377 pairs) at 38 localities (53 Reid, T.A. and Huin, N. (2008). Census of the Southern Giant Petrel population of the Falkland Islands 281814/281815. Bird Conservation International. 18(2): 118–128. Close ). Fewer than 250 pairs on Gough I, in 2000/01, where species has apparently increased since 1979 (54 Cuthbert, R.J. and Sommer, E.A. (2004). Population size and trends of four globally threatened seabirds at Gough Island, South Atlantic Ocean. Marine Orn.. 32(2): 97-103. Close ). Only recently discovered breeding in Chubut Province, S Argentina (55 Punta, G. and Saravia, J. (1991). A newly discovered colony of Southern Giant Petrels Macronectes giganteus on Isla Gran Robredo, Chubut Province, Argentina. Marine Orn.. 19(2): 131–133. Close ). No recent breeding records from Bouvetøya (1 Shirihai, H. (2007). A Complete Guide to Antarctic Wildlife. The Birds and Mammals of the Antarctic Continent and the Southern Ocean. Second edition. A. & C. Black, London, UK. Close ). Population of Heard and McDonald Is c. 4500 pairs, but breeding success down by 43% since 1951. Future security of species probably closely linked with that of seal and penguin colonies, which are important source of food while breeding; however, main problems are vulnerability to disturbance and levels of incidental mortality in commercial fisheries, especially for Patagonian toothfish (Dissostichus eleginoides), which was suspected to have accounted for 2000–4000 birds in 1997/98 alone (6 Brooke, M. (2004). Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Close ). Mitigation techniques have now been devised and tested (56 Ryan, P.G. and Watkins, B.P. (2002). Reducing incidental mortality of seabirds with an underwater longline setting funnel. Biological Conservation. 104: 127–131. Close , 57 Norden, W.S. and Pierre, J.P. (2007). Exploiting sensory ecology to reduce seabird by-catch. Emu. 107(1): 38–43. Close , 58 Snell, K.R.S., Brickle, P. and Wolfaardt, A.C. (2012). Refining Tori lines to further reduce seabird mortality associated with demersal trawlers in the South Atlantic. Polar Biology. 35(5): 677–687. Close ). Contaminants and plastics are also newly-emerging threats to this and other subantarctic seabirds (59 Lu, B., Wang, Z.-P., Zhu, C., Wu, G.-H. and Vetter, W. (2005). Residue levels of PCBs and OCPs in eggs of Antarctic seabirds and their global significance. Acta Ecol. Sinica. 25(9): 2440–2445. (In Chinese with English summary.). Close , 60 Nędzarek, A. and Pociecha, A. (2010). Limnological characterization of freshwater systems of the ThomasPoint Oasis (Admiralty Bay, King George Island, West Antarctica). Polar Science. 4: 457–467. Close ).