Great Tit Parus major Scientific name definitions

Taxonomic note: Split. This account was originally published under a single species in HBW Alive, but in Birds of the World it covers multiple species. We present that original content here, with the goal of developing a more refined species account for this taxon moving forward. Please consider contributing your expertise to update this account.

HBW Great Tit

12·5–15 cm; 11·9–22·1 g. Large, black-headed tit with large white face patch , and pale or yellow underparts divided by black ventral line. Male nominate race has forehead to crown (to below eye) and nape glossy bluish black, dull whitish patch on centre of lower nape becoming greenish yellow on lowermost hindneck and upper mantle; rest of mantle, scapulars and upper back green, scapulars tinged olive, lower back to uppertail-coverts light bluish grey, tinged green on rump, longest uppertail-coverts and tail bluish grey with blackish inner webs, outer three rectrices tipped white (minutely on innermost of the three), on outermost rectrix white extends as a wedge to about half feather length on inner web and over entire outer web; lesser and median upperwing-coverts greyish blue, greaters with blackish on inner webs and fringed finely greenish on outers and broadly tipped white, alula and primary-coverts black, finely fringed white; flight-feathers blackish grey, tertials broadly fringed pale greenish yellow (becoming white towards tip), secondaries and inner primaries finely fringed pale greyish blue; cheek and ear-coverts white, chin, throat and neck side to centre of upper breast black (slight blue gloss on throat and breast), fairly broad but irregular black line from lower bib to vent; sides of breast and belly bright lemon-yellow, flanks washed grey-green, undertail-coverts white with tips of longest blackish; axillaries and underwing-coverts whitish; in worn plumage, crown and nape duller, less glossy, upperparts duller green, ventral line slightly broader, rest of underparts paler yellow, or greyer on flanks; iris dark reddish brown to blackish brown; bill black, paler cutting edges; legs slate-grey to blue-grey. Female like male, but slightly duller black on crown, upperparts duller or darker green, fringes of greater coverts and secondaries greenish grey (not greyish blue), black on side of neck narrower or broken, bib duller black, ventral line narrower and less intensely black (may be broken or show white tips towards vent), undertail-coverts more extensively white. Juvenile is as female, but crown to nape browner or brownish olive, nuchal spot small and dingy, upperparts dull olive-green, greyer on rump and uppertail-coverts, tail duller and greyer with poorly defined whitish tips on outer two feathers, wing-coverts washed or fringed olive, flight-feathers dark grey, fringed grey-green on secondaries and pale grey on primaries; cheeks, ear-coverts and neck-side pale yellow (whiter when worn), small dark grey bib in breast centre and trace of narrow dark grey ventral line, rest of underparts pale yellow, greyish wash on flanks; iris paler or greyer. Races fairly well defined, differing mainly in size, bill shape, intensity of yellow in plumage, and extent of white in outer tail: <em>newtoni</em> is as nominate, but bill slightly longer (and culmen less curved), mantle slightly deeper green, less white in outer tail, male with ventral line broadly black and widening on belly, female with black areas duller, ventral line also narrower and can be broken on lower belly; kapustini is paler above and below than nominate; corsus is as nominate, but upperparts slightly duller or darker, greyish olive, has less yellow on nape and less white in tail, and underparts paler yellow except for greyish wash on flanks; <em>mallorcae</em> differs from nominate in slightly larger bill, more greyish-blue upperparts, slightly paler (pale yellow to greyish-white) underparts, less white in tail; <em>ecki</em> resembles last, but with bluish tinge on upperparts and slightly paler underparts; excelsus is as nominate, but brighter olive-green above, very little or no white on outer tail feather, underparts bright yellow (deeper than in previous two); aphrodite has upperparts slightly darker than nominate, more olive-grey, and underparts variably yellow to pale cream; niethammeri is very similar to last but with slightly larger bill, upperparts slightly duller or darker, less green, and underparts very pale yellow; terraesanctae is as previous two, but upperparts slightly paler; blanfordi is as nominate, but mantle and scapulars duller or greyer, underparts pale yellow (but darker in E & S Elburz Mts and into N Iraq), and more white in outer tail feather; karelini very similar to last or intermediate between it and nominate, but with less white in tail; caschmirensis  has upperparts bluish grey (darker than ziaratensis), tail blackish grey and broadly fringed bluish grey, outer rectrix entirely white and adjacent one white except on edge of inner web, tertials broadly fringed pale grey, flight-feathers narrowly edged same, underparts off-white or tinged buffish, slightly whiter on breast-side and border of ventral line; intermedius is similar to last, but upperparts light bluish grey (may be faintly tinged greenish), upper mantle tinged olive, greater coverts edged pale bluish grey, alula black, much less white in tail, underparts creamy to pale greyish white; ziaratensis is also similar but with slightly smaller bill, paler upperparts, broader and whiter edges of tertials, underparts whiter; <em>bokharensis</em> has slightly smaller white cheek patch, bluer-grey fringes to flight-feathers, slightly larger size and larger bill, shorter tail; some races with greener (less grey) upperparts, bright yellow (not whitish) on underparts; <em>ferghanensis</em> differs from last in slightly smaller bill, upperparts slightly paler greyish blue, flanks washed darker grey, juvenile more visibly yellow on face and underparts; <em>turkestanicus</em> is like bokharensis, but bill slightly larger, upperparts  darker (but paler than previous); decolorans has underparts darker and flanks greyer; planorum is also like caschmirensis, but upperparts slightly darker grey, tinged bluish, less white in tail (but outermost feather white), tips of greater coverts narrower and whiter, fringes of tertials whiter, underparts whiter; vauriei resembles previous, but flanks slightly greyer, white in outer tail restricted to distal half of outermost rectrix; <em>stupae</em> is similar to caschmirensis, but slightly darker bluish grey above, greater coverts narrowly fringed bluish grey, tertials whiter, outer tail feather white and adjacent one extensively so, underparts paler or tinged pale pinkish buff (usually heaviest on female) except for pale grey flanks; mahrattarum is closest to previous, but upperparts slightly darker or more heavily bluish grey , less white in tail (outermost feather all white, but next one only half white), underparts duller smoky grey; templorum is very like planorum, differs chiefly in having more black on greater wing-coverts; hainanus is similar to caschmirensis but slightly darker above, mantle often washed olive, greater coverts mostly black (narrowly fringed bluish grey and tipped white), tertials fringed white, outermost rectrix white and distal half of inner web of adjacent one white, underparts pale greyish white or dull cream, flanks greyer; ambiguus is also similar but smaller, with slightly darker upperparts, smaller nuchal patch, greater coverts black with thin bluish fringes, tertials fringed pale grey, white in tail reduced to most of outermost feather and tip of next, underparts slightly darker; <em>cinereus</em> is similar to previous, but upperparts slightly darker blue-grey, underparts paler and tinged pinkish, outer tail feather white and tips of next two also white; sarawacenis resembles last, but white nuchal patch reduced or absent, upperparts slightly darker grey, uppertail-coverts black, tail feathers also black with narrow grey fringes and white restricted to outermost rectrix (which has base of inner web black), underparts pale greyish white, blackish ventral stripe broad; <em>minor</em> is similar to nominate, but uppermost mantle olive-yellow, becoming plain olive below and greyish olive on scapulars and back, underparts mostly whitish, breast-side and upper flanks washed pinkish buff, lower flanks greyish, female also as nominate but with olive fringes of tertials; dageletensis is as previous but has less olive-green on mantle, underparts whiter, dark ventral line narrower; <em>kagoshimae</em> is similar but with darker flanks; amamiensis has olive-green only on upper mantle, contrasting with greyer lower mantle, back and rump; <em>okinawae</em> is as previous but less green (merely washed green on upper mantle), lower mantle to back and rump darker bluish grey; <em>nigriloris</em> is similar to last but darker, lacks nuchal patch, green on mantle replaced by bluish black (slightly glossy), becoming dark bluish grey on rest of upperparts, tail mostly blackish grey (white restricted to tip of outermost feather), lores and neck-side broadly black and merging with bluish black of bib (white on cheeks and ear-coverts reduced), underparts darker, with narrow whitish-grey border to lower bib and ventral line; <em>tibetanus</em> is similar to minor but larger, has duller olive or greenish-olive upperparts (much duller grey in worn plumage), more white in outer two tail feathers; nubicolus resembles last, but upper mantle slightly more yellow; commixtus is similar to minor, but generally less olive-green on mantle, greyer lower mantle and scapulars, variable amounts of white in outer two rectrices, and underparts slightly darker (tinged pinkish in fresh plumage).

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HBW Great Tit

Editor's Note: Additional distribution information for this taxon can be found in the 'Subspecies' article above. In the future we will develop a range-wide distribution article.

HBW Great Tit

Mostly open deciduous and mixed forests and edges and clearings in dense forest, including conifer forests and boreal taiga of N Siberia; also more widely in plantations, hedgerows, orchards, parks, gardens (including in urban and suburban areas), edges of cultivation, olive groves and almost any group of trees or bushes. In Europe shows preference for oaks (Quercus); in Siberia, W China and Mongolia principally in riverine birch (Betula) or willow (Salix) thickets and mixed forest, and in isolated clumps of trees on otherwise open steppe, around villages and other settlements, in Mongolia also in open semi-desert and montane forest. In SW Jordan a small population exists in scattered junipers (Juniperus) and oleanders (Nerium) at edges of wadis; in NW Africa favours cork oak (Quercus suber) and holm oak (Quercus ilex) and Atlas cedars (Cedrus atlantica), and occurs in palm groves in S Morocco. In W Pakistan (Baluchistan) breeds in juniper and pine (Pinus) forest, but in Himalayas mostly in deciduous and mixed forest, preferably open forest of oak, but also horse chestnut (Aesculus), pine and deodar (Cedrus deodar) and, E of N Pakistan, sal (Shorea) forest and acacia (Acacia) groves, and at higher levels in orchards, poplars (Populus) and willows; in peninsular India, W Myanmar and N Thailand found mainly in dry deciduous forest, groves or scattered trees in open and hilly country, but rarely in evergreen forest (except in NW Thailand, where evidently prefers stands of pines in evergreen forest); in non-breeding season in wider variety of habitats, including roadside and riverine trees and scrub-forest. In N Laos occurs in pine woods and in deciduous dipterocarp in S; in Malay Peninsula and Borneo only in coastal and riverine forest, nipa palms, Casuarina stands and mangroves. In Greater and Lesser Sundas found in wide variety of deciduous, coniferous and secondary forests, including montane heath and grasslands above treeline. In Europe principally in lowlands (rare above 500 m in Scotland), but to 1950 m in Switzerland; in Middle East to 1800 m in Lebanon, and in NW Africa to 1850 m; in NE Afghanistan 1000–2600 m, and in Himalayas mostly to 1800 m but 1200–2440 m in NW India (and to 3660 m in Chitral and Ladakh), and exceptionally to 3050 m in summer in Nepal, generally lower in E Himalayas (but to c. 1500 m in Arunachal Pradesh); in peninsular India at 610–915 m in Eastern Ghats and 120–2285 m in Kerala, and in Sri Lanka mostly 600–1770 m (or lower locally); in C China 300–1650 m (most towards upper limit, owing to persecution and lack of lowland habitat), but in S up to 4040 m in Tibet and 4420 m in Sichuan; at 500–1100 m in W Myanmar (Mt Victoria) and 800–2135 m in NW Thailand, and to 2000 m in Sumatra and Java; in Lesser Sundas, from sea-level to 930 m on Sumba, to above 1000 m on Sumbawa, 1400 m on Flores and 2400 m on Lombok; in Japan occurs to 1800 m, exceptionally to 2200 m.

HBW Great Tit

Resident, altitudinal migrant and partially eruptive. In C & S Europe largely sedentary, but also eruptive in autumns when population high (and often when beech crop poor and in conjunction with other factors). In late summer and autumn, dispersing flocks of juveniles (which can include some only c. 1 week out of nest) wander in random manner usually within a short distance of breeding range (second-brood young generally moving farther than those fledged earlier), but may gather in larger numbers at favourable feeding localities; by late autumn or early winter numbers within flocks usually reduced by c. 50% through death or emigration, and flock usually more settled in area that it will occupy throughout winter. In study over four years 2007–2010 in 1·6-km² woodland area in S Norway in which elevational gradient (from 105 m to 266 m) caused phenological delay in vegetation and in peak caterpillar abundance at higher levels, present species and Cyanistes caeruleus made similar post-fledging shifts, moving mean distance from nest to site of observation of 134 m (range 6–1036 m); on average, families moved upslope, suggesting that they were able to track environmental phenology, although most did not move far from nest-site (possibly because parents wished to defend year-round territory and could not afford to leave for longer periods) (7 Slagsvold, T., A. Eriksen, R. M. De Ayala, J. Husek, and K. L. Wiebe (2013). Postfledging movements in birds: do tit families track environmental phenology? Auk 130(1):36–45. Close ). Adults (especially males) remain on breeding territory throughout year if conditions permit (including in areas of NW Siberian taiga), but may join flocks for short periods in midwinter, especially when flocks pass through territory (in late winter, males more likely to be within territory in preparation for breeding season). Evidence from ringing in British Is shows most movements within 10 km, and that 95% of females refound within 36 km of place of ringing and same number of males within 20 km, exceptions being midwinter movements across North Sea to Netherlands and Lithuania. In eruption years, flocks usually totalling no more than 2000 individuals, mostly of first-year birds from N populations (where winter daylight too short to find food), move S & W in Sept and Oct to around Baltic region (30% of recoveries from Moscow region within 100 km SW of ringing site), Netherlands, Britain and Ireland; some travel further, 1700–2700 km, to as far S as the Balkans, upper reaches of R Danube, Switzerland and NE Italy; included in such movements are birds from Russia recovered in Germany, Netherlands and Britain, and in extreme cases individuals from Kaliningrad (W Russia) reaching S Ireland and SW France. In NW Russia in vicinity of large cities, most first-years and adults are resident; mostly resident also in Latvia, but in Lithuania more migratory, with recoveries in S France and Portugal; similarly, many first-years from W Siberia recovered S of breeding range in Kazakhstan. Return movements to breeding areas in Feb–Mar, but in eruption or invasion years individuals may remain to breed in areas occupied during the winter (spread of range into N Norway resulted from winter invasions). In Vladivostok region of SE Russia, some resident but majority depart from breeding areas in Sept–Oct and return Mar–Apr; in Japan, many in N (Hokkaido) move SW to Honshu after breeding. Many of those breeding at higher elevations in Asia, as e.g. in parts of Indian Subcontinent and China, descend to lower levels after breeding. Vagrants recorded in Iceland, Canary Is (Tenerife, Fuerteventura), Malta, Bering Straits (Little Diomede I) and Taiwan.

HBW Great Tit

Well studied. Food in summer mostly small invertebrates and larvae (usually up to 1 cm); at other seasons also seeds and various other items. Invertebrates include cockroaches (Blattodea), grasshoppers and crickets (Orthoptera), damselflies and small dragonflies (Odonata), lacewings (Neuroptera), earwigs (Dermaptera), bugs (Hemiptera) including aphids (Aphidoidea), ants (Formicidae), millipedes (Diplopoda), mites (Acari), moths (Lepidoptera), flies (Diptera), caddis flies (Trichoptera), scorpion flies (Mecoptera), bees (from which stings usually removed) and wasps (Hymenoptera), beetles (Coleoptera), spiders (Araneae), harvestmen (Opiliones), snails (Gastropoda), woodlice (Isopoda). Seeds and fruit (mostly in non-breeding season) mainly those of deciduous trees and shrubs, particularly seeds of beech (Fagus sylvatica) and hazel (Corylus avellana); also takes spilled grain (mostly wheat and maize) in fields, and fat, bread, cheese, household scraps (including meat), peanuts and sunflower seeds from birdtables (in severe winter weather estimated to consume 44% of its own weight in sunflower seeds); also takes nectar from fritillary (Fritillaria) and currant (Ribes) and sap from walnut (Juglans) and vines (Vitis). Nestlings fed mostly (not exclusively) with lepidopteran larvae, especially in deciduous woodland; in pine woods, spiders, beetles and sawfly larvae (Symphyta) form greater proportion of diet. Experimental studies have shown that it can use herbivore-induced plant volatiles as olfactory cues to find insect larvae (8 Amo, L., J. J. Jansen, N. M. van Dam, M. Dicke, and M. E. Visser (2013). Birds exploit herbivore-induced plant volatiles to locate herbivorous prey. Ecology Letters 16(11):1348–1355. Close , 9 Mäntylä, E., S. Kleier, S. Kipper, and M. Hilke (2017). The attraction of insectivorous tit species to herbivore-damaged Scots pines. Journal of Ornithology 158(2):479–491. Close ). In Britain and some other parts of Europe, shares with Cyanistes caeruleus the acquired habit of piercing milk-bottle tops on doorsteps to sip cream. Does not store food, but may steal from caches of tits that do (e.g. Periparus ater and Poecile palustris); highly intelligent and quick to learn, especially from partner or from others in flock, where to find hidden food. Flocks recorded preying regularly on hibernating bats (Pipistrellus pipistrellus) at a cave in Hungary (10 Estók, P., S. Zsebők, and B. M. Siemers (2010). Great tits search for, capture, kill and eat hibernating bats. Biology Letters 6(1):59–62. Close ). Seeds, particularly hard-shelled ones and nuts, often collected and taken to branch , where held firmly by foot (or feet) and rapidly hammered with the bill until a hole is made through which the kernel can be extracted; some, particularly larger seeds, may be wedged in bark before being opened. Occurs singly or in pairs, also in groups, in autumn frequently in large groups consisting solely of juveniles, and in winter up to 50 together (including first-years and adults) as part of a mixed-species foraging flock. Within single-species flock males dominate, and hierarchy of males usually dependent on proximity of territory, with territory owner usually most dominant; dominance in winter flock increases likelihood of surviving winter. Forages at all levels in trees, but usually avoids tallest canopy; most often in lower levels of trees, where it gleans among foliage, branches and trunks, also in shrubs and tall undergrowth. Also on ground , especially male in non-breeding season, where collects fallen seeds, berries and invertebrates. Occasionally hovers for very brief moments, but rarely pursues insects in flight; commonly hovers at garden feeders and birdtables. One of the few bird species known to use a tool in obtaining food items; recorded as holding a conifer needle in the bill and using it as a means of extracting larvae from hole in tree.

HBW Great Tit

Male particularly vocal throughout year, with large repertoire and variety of calls, up to 40 distinct notes recorded. Single call notes include soft “pit”, “spick”, “chit” or “squink”, often as contact when foraging and as introductory notes to longer series of other calls, a loud metallic “tink” or “chink” used almost exclusively by adult male in variety of situations, e.g. alarm, territory defence (often during prolonged “tinking duels” with rivals at territory boundaries), aggression and during winter flocking, and very similar to one of the calls given by Common Chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs), similarity further enhanced when repeated as rapid double or treble “tink-tink-tink”, also often as precursor to full song; may be given also by female in territory defence close to nest-site, often with thin or sharp “tsee”. Churring “chich-ich-ich-ich” or “chach-ach-ach” (similar to that of Cyanistes caeruleus but louder), often preceded with single “tsee”, “tink” or “pee-tink”, may be given lightly as contact between partners, also during courtship, and more prolonged, emphatic and harshly when alarmed or agitated; also a dry, rising “chur-r-r-r-rihihi”, often as prelude to heavy scolding churr. Other calls include dry, nasal “tcha-tcha-tcha” (variation of churring call) and reminiscent of similar phrase of Poecile palustris, rather explosive “chack-chack-chee…” and “spick-spick-pee-peu-peu”, and variety of similar notes, including “tsee-tsui” in anxiety and aggression; during courtship and display male gives low warbling “ziddle zeeeeeeee” or “tri li li deeeee”, female responding with similar but lower “zeedle-zeedle-zeedle-zeedle” (occasionally as more rapid “zzrrree zrrree…”); female on nest may give loud, explosive hissing note, possibly as defence against potential predator. Fledglings have loud, high-pitched “tsee-tsee-tsee-tsee-tsee” or more emphatic “zicker-zicker-zicker”, and shorter “zi-zi-zi” contact note. Song almost entirely uniform across range (but in playback experiments captive female cinereus showed no reaction to song of nominate, although song of cinereus elicited full territorial response when played to minor from SE Russia); male territorial song usually a loud, sharp and slightly metallic “tea-cher, tea-cher”, “teechuwee teechuwee”, “tsi-tsi-daa tsi-tsi-daa” or “zizibaah zizizbaah”, usually repeated several times (exceptionally, up to ten times); only slight geographical variation, e.g. throughout Indian Subcontinent, Malay Peninsula and Indonesia (“cinereus group”) song “chew-a-ti, chew-a-ti, chew-a-ti”, “swee-pepe-ti, swee-pepe-ti” or “weeter-weeter-weeter” and the like, while “bokharensis group” song is a “pid-du, pid-du, pid-du”, rather similar in tone to song of Periparus ater, but often thinner or more plaintive than that of other P. major taxa, as well as a ringing “pink-it, pink-it” and a descending “chee-chee-chee-chee”; also usual for males to have at least three songs of differing tempo. Song of female very similar to that of male but rarely given. Both sexes give soft subsong (normally from within foliage, almost inaudible except at close range) of random warbled notes, usually from end of winter to start of nest-building or fledging of young.

HBW Great Tit

Season mostly late Jan to Sept (lays from late Mar onwards in W Palearctic), in Israel also exceptionally Oct–Dec (following post-breeding moult), start of laying usually heavily influenced by amount of sunlight and daytime temperatures (or provision of extra food), also by altitude and by age of female; breeds throughout year on Java, with peak Apr–Jun; usually two broods (less frequently in deciduous woodland), rarely at same site but can be up to 200 m apart, and three broods not unknown. Monogamous, rarely polygamous; pair-bond lasts for duration of breeding season, may re-form in autumn and in following season (if both partners still alive). Territorial, boundary usually established by late Jan, and enforced with aggressive behaviour (mostly towards trespassing first-year birds) from late winter and early spring, defence usually declines following completion of clutch but in some areas maintenance of territory may be central to successful breeding; in S of range (Israel) territorial throughout year, and does not form flocks; generally solitary breeder, but pairs sometimes nest very close to each other, e.g. simultaneously in nestboxes 3–4 m apart in same tree. Displaying male keeps slightly higher than female, perches horizontally or hops with wings slightly raised and opened, tail raised and partly spread, occasionally raises and lowers tail and shivers wings while giving warbling trill, both birds then flying with shallow wingbeats or gliding to area of hole and inspecting potential nest-site; male courtship-feeds female, which crouches on branch and shivers wings, begging by female increases at start of egg-laying, during start of incubation and just before young leave nest. Nest built by female, mostly of plant fibres, grasses, moss, animal hair, wool and feathers, placed at variable height in hole or cavity in tree , occasionally in wall , rock face or building, frequently in nestbox (often used in preference to natural hole; in some cases entire population dependent on availability of boxes), exceptionally in old squirrel (Sciuridae) drey, in disused nest of other bird or in dense tangled vegetation; sometimes (especially “cinereus group”) in rodent burrow, and in E of range often in hole in bank or ground; territory size variable, 0·5 ha to c. 3·6 ha. Clutch generally 5–12 eggs, slightly fewer in second broods and in areas of poor habitat, occasionally more, up to 18, eggs white marked with purplish-red and pale purple spots, speckles and small blotches, mean size 17·5 mm × 13·5 mm; incubation by female, fed on nest by male, start often delayed for several days (exceptionally, a week) after clutch completed or may begin up to three days before completion, incubation period 12–15 days; chicks fed by both parents, daily intake of food by nestlings c. 6–7 g but varies with availability of food (less on cold and wet days), can survive and fledge on as little as 3·2 g per day, and first broods receive more than do second broods; nestling period 16–22 days; young become independent c. 8 days after fledging, but often fed by parents (especially male) for up to 25 days more, and those of second broods may be fed for up to 50 days. Breeding success variable and dependent on a wide range of factors, including age of adults, rate of predation, starvation, changes in temperature and prolonged cold or rain in summer; age of male affects number of fledged young, age of female affects laying date and clutch size; established pairs have larger clutches and higher success rate than those breeding for first time (even when one partner has bred previously). Number of young fledged (as proportion of eggs laid) variable between broods and habitats, in S England broadleaf woodland 95% (first brood) and 59% (second brood); in W German larch wood 61% (first brood) and 76% (second brood); in S France evergreen oak woodland 42% (first brood, largely as a result of unexplained desertion) and 55% (second brood); birds breeding in conifer woodlands appear to do better, with S England pines 60–62% (first brood) and 78–87% (second brood), and 97% of first broods in conifer woodland in Sweden. In S England study in deciduous woodland 23% of nests failed due to predation by weasels (Mustela nivalis) over 29-year period, with marked annual fluctuatation depending on availability of alternative prey; other significant predators include grey squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis), Eurasian Sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus), Great Spotted Woodpecker (Dendrocopos major), Eurasian Jay (Garrulus glandarius) and domestic cats (Felis catus). Some competition with House Sparrows (Passer domesticus) for nesting cavities. In study in Israel, where nestboxes with different-sized entrances available, the tits occupied boxes regardless of number of sparrows breeding in vicinity: during second part of season, percentage of successful pairs was negatively correlated with occupation of nestboxes by sparrows, and more pairs bred and more young fledged in small-entrance boxes than in large-entrance ones; tits occupied more large-entrance nestboxes during first part of season than during second part, probably because sparrows occupied more large-hole boxes in second part; 74% of large-entrance nestboxes in which tits built nests in both first and second parts of season were subsequently occupied by House Sparrows (11 Charter, M., Y. Leshem, and I. Izhaki (2013). Asymmetric seasonal nest site competition between Great Tits and House Sparrows. Journal of Ornithology 154(1):173–181. Close ). Mortality rate of juveniles rather high, 71% of young die within 400 days of fledging, greatest cause of death starvation; juveniles from second broods particularly vulnerable, have to compete with older, more dominant and frequently aggressive first-brood juveniles for food and foraging areas. Breeds within first year. Adult mortality fairly high, about half of breeding adults not reaching subsequent breeding season; ringing studies in England give annual survival rate c. 44% for males and c. 52% for females (mortality significantly lower in years of low population than in years when population high), and studies elsewhere in Europe show that adult mortality is comparable to that found in England, rising to 70% in St Petersburg (Russia), but mortality rate among first-years variable (from 61% in Czech Republic to 87% in Netherlands); mortality also increases for adults more than five years old, after which age females have lower reproductive rate and young have lower post-fledging survival rate. Maximum recorded longevity 15 years.

HBW Great Tit

Not globally threatened (Least Concern). Common, locally common or abundant; not uncommon in Morocco but scarce N Algeria, and rare Saharan Atlas; rare in S Bhutan, rare in NE Iran, and uncommon in NW China. Status on Borneo requires clarification, species perhaps only locally common and confined to coastal and riverine forests and mangroves. In Lesser Sundas , moderately common or very common at sea-level and above 1000 m on Flores; also two old records on Timor, where status requires confirmation. Estimated European breeding population (excluding Russia) 40,000,000–60,000,000 pairs. Densities in S England (pairs/km²) 20–320 in mixed deciduous woods, 80–330 in oak woodland, 6–53 in pine plantation; in NE Poland (Bialowieza forest), 24 pairs/km² in alder (Alnus) swamp-forest, 26 in mixed ash-alder (Fraxinus-Alnus) forest, 19–24 in mixed oak-hornbeam (Quercus-Carpinus) forest and 1–2 in mixed coniferous forest. During 20th century, range in Europe expanded N into Norway, Finland and N Scotland, also significant increases in Netherlands and Estonia, and by more than 50% in Ukraine, since 1970. In E Mediterranean, spread S in Israel between 1950 and 1970 with growth of human settlements; became established in N Sinai (NE Egypt) in early 1970s and now locally common there. Since 1978 has spread to S Kamchatka, where now resident around towns and adjacent areas of forest. Generally, a very familiar parid in much of its range, and one of the world’s best-studied avian species.