White-spectacled Bulbul Pycnonotus xanthopygos Scientific name definitions

c. 19 cm; 31–46 g. A medium-sized species with whitish to pale grey eyering and yellow vent; the only bulbul in its range. Head is black , browner on hindcrown, contrasting bare eyering white, bluish-white, greyish-white or pale flesh-grey; upperparts grey-brown, in fresh plumage washed olive-yellow, particularly on rump and uppertail-coverts; wings dark grey-brown, slightly darker than upperparts, narrow pale grey-brown fringes on outer webs of flight-feathers and greater upper primary coverts; tail black, central pair of feathers tinged grey-brown; upper chin black, lower chin, rear of ear-coverts and lower cheeks blackish-brown, throat dark brown; breast, flanks and belly pale grey-brown, slightly paler than upperparts, vent and undertail-coverts bright yellow ; in worn plumage, face becomes duller, browner, upperparts paler and browner, wings and tail duller and darker (but abraded feather tips bleached paler grey-brown), underparts paler, lower belly grey-white and undertail-coverts paler yellow; iris black, dark brown or brown; bill black or dark bluish-black, paler at base; legs black or slaty blue. Sexes alike, female on average slightly smaller than male. Juvenile has face duller grey-brown, upperparts somewhat paler, feathering softer and looser, particularly on rump and undertail-coverts.

E Mediterranean from SW & SC Turkey, W Syria, Lebanon, Israel and W Jordan S to NE Egypt (Sinai), also W, C & S Saudi Arabia, Yemen, N United Arab Emirates and N & SW Oman.

Wide range of well-vegetated areas with low trees and bushes, in both natural vegetation and cultivation, including open pine (Pinus) woods, juniper (Juniperus) forest, Ceratonia scrub, thick bush in wadi beds, trees and bushes in open semi-desert, oases, orchards, groves, fields, gardens and villages. Sea-level to at least 1000 m in Turkey, to 1300 m in Israel, to 2000 m in Egypt and even higher in Saudi Arabia.

Mostly resident; some local wandering in search of fruit sources. Altitudinal migration recorded in Israel, and may occur in Turkey. Some young disperse over short distances.

Mostly fruit , also seeds and invertebrates; less frequently, nectar, leaves and flowers. Eats wide variety of wild and cultivated fruit, including Azadirachta, Nitraria, Opuntia, dates, mulberries, peaches, plums, tomatoes, strawberries; small fruits swallowed whole, larger ones nibbled. Takes leaves and petals of Erythrina and Iris. Invertebrates eaten include flies (Diptera), moths (Lepidoptera), hymenopterans (alate ants, bees, wasps), orthopterans, spiders (Araneae), earthworms, gastropod snails. Also reported as eating carrion. Nestling diet initially only insects and spiders, later increasing proportion of fruit. Insects often taken in aerial sallies from tree perch, particularly at dusk; also gleans from leaves, sometimes hover-gleans, and descends to ground level to forage among fallen vegetation. Recorded as chasing Hoopoes (Upupa epops) to steal mole-crickets (Gryllotalpa). Inquisitive, noisy, cheerful; tame around settlements, more cautious elsewhere. Gregarious all year. Usually occurs in pairs, or in “duos” comprising two siblings of same or different sex which associate closely. Often gathers in greater numbers at locally abundant food sources; flocks of 25–40 recorded in Jordan and of several hundreds, even thousands, in Israel, particularly at end of breeding season, when up to 83% of such flocks comprise first-year birds. Pairs or duos territorial all year, but territory less aggressively defended in non-breeding season, will leave temporarily to join noisy feeding flocks; movements of a few kilometres between feeding stations may occur daily. Feeding activity of flocks often begins before sunrise and usually ends in late afternoon, up to half an hour before sunset.

Song, from elevated but not necessarily exposed perch, a monotonous repetition of a single phrase of 2–9 syllables, variously stressed, may be rich and fluty, sometimes a contralto whistle, sometimes deeper and more husky, but usually given in short, disjointed snatches, variously rendered as “bli-bli-bli-bli”, “bul-bul-bul-bul”, “twur-tu-twéé-teeroo” and similar, or even (in Oman) “tchink-tchink-tchink, kutchi-kutchi-kutchi, tiwink-tiwink-tiwink”; seems to vary regionally, and possible that this variation similar to that of P. barbatus, neighbouring territorial males of which have similar repertoires but more distant birds have no phrases in common. Occasionally mimics other birds, e.g. Thrush Nightingale (Luscinia luscinia), Eurasian Blackbird (Turdus merula) and Golden Oriole (Oriolus oriolus). Calls include thin, faint chirping and whistling sounds in greeting after short period of separation, louder, sharper calls rendered “MINE, you’re MINE, you’re MINE” after more extended separation and also in confrontations, and bubbling courtship call; alarm or threat call a sharp, burry, scolding “weck”, “trratsh” or “pwitch”, often repeated with gathering intensity to become penetrating, high-pitched chatter and used to threaten conspecifics and when mobbing.

End Mar to end Aug in Israel, from late Apr in Oman, from Feb in Saudi Arabia (newly fledged young Jul), Mar in Gulf states, fledgling in Mar in Egypt; mostly two broods, sometimes three, in Israel, suspected as triple-brooded in Saudi Arabia. Monogamous; pair-bond maintained all year and for several years. Territorial, solitary nester; territory vigorously defended by both sexes by vocalization and aggressive displays, including pumping of spread tail, sometimes with wings lowered and head plumage ruffled, by loud-calling male, also upright threat display with neck stretched, bill pointed upwards and plumage sleeked, and direct attack. Nest built by female, taking 4–7 days, a cup or small basket of thin twigs, grass stems, moss and leaves, base constructed of broad leaves (sometimes with newspaper, strips of plastic or cotton wool), structure held together by cobwebs and cotton threads, lined after a fashion with hair, shredded bark and rootlets, apparently sometimes unlined, external diameter 8–10 cm, internal diameter 6·5 cm, cup depth 4–5 cm; placed among thin branches 1–2·5 m above ground in low palm or bush; in Israel, territory size a few hundred square metres (average minimum inter-nest distance 200 m) and territories usually contiguous in favourable habitat, much smaller (0·05–0·19 ha) in urban situations than in desert areas. Clutch 2–4 eggs, usually 3; many replacement clutches laid, as losses frequent; incubation by female, period 13–14 days; chicks fed initially by female, then by both parents, brooded at night for first week by female, leave nest after 13–15 days, fly c. 10 days later; young able to feed themselves after 4 weeks, independent at 6 weeks; after leaving parental territory, brood-members remain in duos or often trios, in latter case one gradually severing links and joining another, unrelated individual, and duo-members forming bond with non-sibling of opposite sex after 4–6 months. Success low, only 15–35% of eggs laid reach chick stage; in natural habitats many nests destroyed by fire or preyed on by snakes and small mammals, while in orchards and woods many lost to Eurasian Jays (Garrulus glandarius). Age of first breeding sometimes 1 year, often 2 or more.

Not globally threatened. Fairly common to abundant throughout its range. Israel population estimated at a few hundred thousand pairs in 1980s; estimated 5,000–10,000 pairs in United Arab Emirates. Has benefited from a number of anthropogenic habitats. Considerable expansion of range in some areas since c. 1930s, attributable at least in part to development of settlements and spread of cultivation of fruit crops into desert areas; recent records from Iraq may be a continuing manifestation of this process. Often causes extensive damage in orchards etc. Regarded as an agricultural pest in some places; may be killed legally in Israel, where 670 were trapped within area of 0·5 ha in a 9-day period in Jun 1984.