Willie-wagtail Rhipidura leucophrys Scientific name definitions

19–21 cm; 17–25 g. Has white supercilium ; rest of head to upper chest, and upperparts and tail black, malar area, chin and throat with varying amount of white on feather tips; remiges and primary wing-coverts dark brown, secondary coverts black; white below, underwing with white mottling in carpal area; iris dark brown; bill and legs black. Sexes alike. Juvenile has supercilium tinged rufous, black parts of plumage washed brownish, feathers of upperparts and wing-coverts tipped with rufous-buff; immature like adult, but secondary wing-coverts tipped buff (two broken wingbars). Races differ in size: <em>picata</em> is smaller than nominate; <em>melaleuca</em> is larger, with more massive bill.

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Editor's Note: Additional distribution information for this taxon can be found in the 'Subspecies' article above. In the future we will develop a range-wide distribution article.

Almost any habitat, apart from closed forest such as rainforest or densest eucalypt (Eucalyptus) forest. Occurs in open habitats, usually with scattered trees or shrubs, low shrubs and high light intensity, e.g. woodland, open savanna, natural and man-made clearings, edges of waterways, mangroves, coastal areas, gardens and parks, plantations, swamps, lagoons and vicinity of human habitation, very occasionally wet sclerophyll forest; often near water. Forages also on roadside verges. Sea-level to high altitude in Australia; in New Guinea, lowlands and hills to c. 850 m, mid-mountain grasslands of highlands to c. 1980 m, locally 2800 m; sea-level to 1200 m on Buru (Moluccas).

Resident throughout range. Some small-scale seasonal movements, e.g. post-breeding descent from higher altitudes to lower elevations and some S-N shift, although extent not known. Notably dispersive across range, including New Guinea and Pacific islands; birds in parts of New Guinea and Solomon Is depart in dry season, returning with onset of wet season, whereas those in Top End of Australia have reverse pattern. Of 360 recoveries of ringed individuals, 358 (99·4%) captured less than 10 km from site where first ringed.

Arthropods , especially insects and larvae; occasionally oligochaetes, small fish, lizards, grass seeds. Beetles (Coleoptera) and flies (Diptera) the most important, found in 35–50% of stomachs sampled; bugs (Hemiptera), hymenopterans and orthopterans of moderate importance (c. 12·5%), and lepidopterans, Odonata and ephemeropterans eaten less often; other insects groups represented to smaller extents. Spiders regularly make up 2–9% of diet. In highlands of E Australia, hymenopterans (high proportion of winged ants) comprise 72–82% of insects in stomachs (Jan–Mar). Many insects 0·5–10 mm long, but up to 23 mm recorded. Most forag­ing occurs below 3 m; at various localities in temperate Australia, 22–77% of foraging on ground, 8–53% at 0–1 m, 7–27% above 3 m (c. 5% or less below 10 m, although, rarely, sallies to 75 m). Marked seasonal variation in some localities: in temperature forest in NE New South Wales, 26% of perches on ground in austral summer, increasing through autumn, and towards end of winter 90% of perches less than 10 cm from ground; in tropical open forest and woodland in Northern Territory, feeds below 1 m and above 8 m more often during dry season than during wet season (2–7 m). Forages mostly by flycatching, flush-pursuit and gleaning, with considerable seasonal and geographical variation. Flycatching comprises most manoeuvres in early summer, but from mid-summer through winter proportion of flycatching stead­ily decreases while gleaning increases; in NE New South Wales, proportions of flycatching and gleaning respectively 85% and 15% in Oct–Dec, 83% and 17% in Jan–Mar, 75% and 25% in Apr–Jun, and 28% and 72% in Jul–Sept. Most prey captured in air (18–64%) or on ground (22–82%), less often on tree trunks, branches or in foliage; in tropical Australia, 40–52% in air, 22–33% on ground, 7–10% on trunks, percentages varying between wet and dry seasons and between monsoon forest and more open woodland. Searches for prey while perched or by moving rapidly on ground in zigzagging series of runs (covering 20 m or more), hops and low sweeps, often flashing wings and fanning tail (actions that may help to flush insects). From perch, takes prey in flight (37–62%) or from vegetation (3–22%) or in pounce on ground (1·6–3%). Insects sighted from perch pursued in straight line (up to 10–15 m), diagonal loops, dives, steep ascents and horizontal sweeps; following prey capture, bird returns to perch. Small flying insects captured in bill, larger ones occasionally carried in one foot in flight; large insects subdued and broken up by beating against perch until wings removed, or held down with feet while processed. Often forages near larger birds or mammals, particularly domestic stock, but also kangaroos (Macropus), Emus (Dromaius novaehollandiae) and humans; uses cattle as lookout perches, capturing insects flushed by or attracted to moving stock. It has been recorded intentionally displacing horses, swooping onto its ears (1 Delgado-V., C.A. and Correa-H., J.C. (2013). An unusual foraging tactic of the Willie Wagtail. Wilson Journal of Ornithology. 125(4): 846–848. Close ). Feeds on insects drawn to street lights and rubbish bins or disturbed at roadside by passing cars. Joins mixed-species foraging flocks; often steals food from smaller species.

Song, by both sexes, from perch, very occasionally from ground or in flight, loud and far-carrying (audible for more than 200 m). In Australia , pair-members have similar repertoires of 2–5 (usually 3–4) simple song types; 4–7 squeaky whistled notes, often repeated, beginning on high pitch, then gradually descending, variation in pattern, some resembling “sweet pretty creature”, “pretty little creature”, and “sweet pretty little cree-a-ture”; in austral winter (Jun–Jul) sings infrequently, usually as part of dawn chorus, daily rate of songs increasing from late winter, then major component of dawn chorus until early summer (when young present). Song in New Guinea somewhat more jerky than in Australia, with different rhythm and range of frequencies; a phrase of 5–6 notes of uneven rhythm and progressively dropping in pitch and a 3-note phrase, sometimes alternated with weaker 4-note phrase. Frequently sings at night, especially when moonlit, but during breeding season regardless of phase of moon or weather; may continue for hours, usually from roost far from nest-site. Countersinging (second bird immediately repeating song or latter part of each phrase) particularly common in New Guinea. Secondary song of soft rambling notes, lasting for several seconds. Alarm or scolding call a rattle, “tikka-tikka-tikka-tik”, given frequently when attacking intruder or potential predator; other calls a relatively short “whit”, and noisy churring.

Usually mid-Aug to late Jan (most records Oct–Dec) in Australia, but may breed in any month if conditions permit; most months (mainly Sept–Nov) in SE New Guinea, and at least Feb–Nov in New Guinea highlands; Aug–Nov on N coast of New Britain; Jan, Apr, Jun, Aug and Sept on Bougainville; incubation in Aug and chick in Sept in Solomons; in Moluccas, eggs and young in Aug (Seram) and nestling in Sept (Buru); commonly three broods in season, sometimes two, rarely 4–5 recorded. Monogamous, forming stable pairs. During courtship, partners perch 10–15 cm apart, female expands eyebrow, turns her side to male (his eyebrow reduced until almost hidden); male approaches her while bobbing, then jumps around her, uttering various vocalizations. Territorial throughout year, territory defended by both sexes against conspecifics, in disputes at territory boundary performs diving display in which one bird expands supercilium and utters territorial calls and alarm rattles while flying in loop repeatedly (up to ten times) over opponent, roles then often reversed, actions often repeated; aggressive towards intruders, including passing larger animals (reptiles, birds, mammals including humans) when nesting, attacks from behind, sometimes landing on back of larger flying bird and pecking or pulling feathers. Nest built by both sexes, taking usually 5–17 days (1–2 days if previous nest destroyed, 18–28 days if fledglings present), a rounded cup of fine dry grass, bark shreds, plant down, occasionally twigs, roots, wool and animal hair, feathers and twine (may reuse materials from previous nest), extensive external coat of spider web , no “tail”, lined with horse or cow hair (sometimes plucked from animal’s back), grass, other fibres, external diameter 70–76 mm, external depth 44–64 mm, egg-chamber 57 mm across and 32–38 mm deep; typically placed on horizontal fork or branch at height from less than 1 m to more than 25 m from ground (most below 3 m), usually in live tree or shrub, less often dead tree, or on artificial structure (including e.g. rafter in building, machinery, fence, clothesline, windmill, etc.), often near or in same tree as Magpie-lark (Grallina cyanoleuca) nest; nest reused for successive broods, and often in successive years; territory usually 0·8–3·3 ha, same one occupied in successive years (once at least 15 years, but not known if by same pair). Clutch 3–4 eggs, occasionally 2, rarely 1 (mean 3·1, greater above 500 m than below), pure white to cream-buff, buff-olive or greyish, with spots and blotches of dark yellowish-brown or olive to lilac, grey or chestnut-brown usually forming well-defined zone on larger end (occasionally centre, sometimes uniformly distributed over shell), 17·5–21·3 × 14·2–16 mm (those of N birds slightly smaller); duties shared by parents; incubation period 12–16 days, usually c. 14 days, sexes taking shifts of 9–15 minutes; female performs most brooding early in nestling period , male later in period, overall time decreasing through season, intruders near nest attacked or adult performs distraction display by running or fluttering along ground as though injured; fledging period usually 11–17 days, mean c. 14 days, chicks usually leaving nest within period of a few hours; young remain together for 1–2 days, fed for 12 days, then less so until 17 days, remain in territory for 24–26 days after fledging; adults may start new nest or lay eggs while feeding fledglings from previous brood. Parasitized by Fan-tailed (Cacomantis flabelliformis) and Brush Cuckoos (Cacomantis variolosus), by Horsfield’s (Chalcites basalis) and Shining Bronze-Cuckoos (Chalcites lucidus) and, often unsuccessfully, by Pallid Cuckoo (Heteroscenes pallidus). Hatching success 53–88%; eggs and young lost to avian predators and rats (Rattus), also taken by humans (owing to easy accessibility); nestlings also killed by cats; nests often destroyed by, or contents lost after, heavy winds or rain. Maximum recorded longevity over 9 years 4 months.

Not globally threatened (Least Concern). Common to very common in most of range, except in densely wooded habitats. Torres Strait population confined to three small islands, and considered near-threatened; absence in 1973 on Emira I, near New Ireland, where it had been recorded many years previously, may have been due to extirpation during Second World War. Local declines have occurred in some areas of Australia, usually around denser human habitation. In E part of the country, this fantail is subject to exclusion by the larger, aggressive Noisy Miner (Manorina melanocephala) and nest predation by Pied Currawong (Strepera graculina), both of which species have benefited from human landscaping practices and undergone recent population increases in suburban areas; frequently preyed on by cats, and regularly killed by cars when feeding along cleared road verges. In other parts of Australia, has expanded in areas where native vegetation has been cleared, making the landscape more suitable for foraging by this species. A similar increase has been noted in some highland provinces of New Guinea (Eastern Highlands to Telefolmin); usually confined to lowlands and hills, this species has successfully colonized some anthropogenic mid-mountain grasslands; in other parts of highlands (W & SE New Guinea, Huon Peninsula), however, it is still absent. Introduced c. 1923 in Hawaii, where possibly survived until 1937, but now extinct.