Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca Scientific name definitions

72–84 cm; male 2450–2720 g, female 3160–4530 g (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ); wingspan c. 180–215 cm. Generally dark brown ; crown, nape , sides of head and neck have pale tawny-buff lanceolate feathers producing a pale patch. White shoulder patch, or epaulette, much smaller than in A. adalberti. Female larger up to 10% larger (e.g. wing 565–661 mm, versus 540–622 mm in male) and 40% heavier (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Immature starts pale brown with variable dark streaking, and blackish flight feathers, with distinct white trailing edge to wing, regularly streaked breast, and head and rear body very pale and plain (2 Forsman, D. (2005). Eastern Imperial Eagle plumages. Alula. 11(4): 146-152. Close ); passes through darker, very patchy plumages over several years, before attaining adult plumage after six years and via six distinct different plumages (2 Forsman, D. (2005). Eastern Imperial Eagle plumages. Alula. 11(4): 146-152. Close ). Principal confusion risks are with A. rapax, Clanga clanga (especially so-called ‘fulvescens’) (3 Corso, A. (1999). Separating juvenile Imperial and Greater Spotted Eagles, in particular of pale morph ‘fulvescens’. Dutch Birding. 21(3): 150-151. Close ), older immature A. nipalensis and A. chrysaetos (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Juvenile might also be confused with A. verreauxii, principally in the Afrotropics (4 Helbig, A.J. (1991). Identification of juvenile Verreaux’s Eagle. British Birds. 84(7): 287-289. Close ).

C & SE Europe (from Austria, E Czech Republic, Slovakia and N Hungary) and Turkey, Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan E to NW China (W Xinjiang), C Transbaikalia, probably N Mongolia and perhaps NE China (Inner Mongolia), in breeding season reaching N to c. 55° N in European Russia. Winters S to NE & E Africa (S to Kenya, exceptionally N Tanzania; once to Cameroon), Arabia, Iran, E Afghanistan and N Indian Subcontinent (from E Pakistan to Bangladesh, S to Gujarat, more exceptionally Maharashtra and even Tamil Nadu), E & SE China, N Myanmar (once), Thailand, N Indochina and recently S to Singapore; occasional in winter N to Primorye (SE Russia), Korea and Japan (mainly Honshu, but also Shikoku, Kyushu and Ishigaki-jima), as well as Taiwan.

Originally bred on old isolated trees in plains of C & SE Europe, but has subsequently retreated to large forests in mountains, as result of persecution and habitat alteration. In Slovakia and Hungary, where now well protected, starting to reoccupy former habitats. Hunts in open, often cultivated, areas. Recorded to 2000 m in Turkey (5 Kirwan, G. M., K. A. Boyla, P. Castell, B. Demirci, M. Özen, H. Welch, and T. Marlow (2008). The Birds of Turkey: The Distribution, Taxonomy and Breeding of Turkish Birds. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ).

Mostly migratory. Birds migrate to S Turkey, Iran, Israel , Iraq, Egypt and Arabia, and to Pakistan, India, Laos and Vietnam, more recently (since mid 1980s) (6 Wells, D. R. (1999). The Birds of the Thai-Malay Peninsula. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ) moving as far S as Singapore and elsewhere in Peninsular Malaysia (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). However, main wintering grounds are probably in Middle East. Leaves breeding areas mid Sept to mid Oct/Nov, returning in Feb–Apr/May (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ), with passage through Israel in autumn recorded between 9 Sept and late Nov (most between 5 Oct and 10 Nov), and in spring between mid Feb and 25 May, with most during late Feb to mid Apr (7 Shirihai, H., R. Yosef, D. Alon, G. M. Kirwan, and R. Spaar (2000). Raptor migration in Israel and the Middle East: a summary of 30 years of field research. International Birding & Research Center in Eilat, Israel. Close ). Numbers passing migration watchpoints are usually small; in Middle East, largest numbers in autumn, exceptionally 556 at Suez, Egypt, in 1981, and 178 in 1984 (8 Goodman, S. M., P. L. Meininger, S. M. Baha el Din, J. J. Hobbs, and W. C. Mullié, Editors (1989). The Birds of Egypt. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK & New York, USA. Close ), and 309 at Ghadir Burqu, Jordan, between 24 Sept and 20 Oct 1998 (9 Andrews, I.J. (1996). Preliminary data on raptor passage in Jordan. Sandgrouse. 18(2): 36–45. Close ), whereas in spring maximum of just 95 at Eilat, Israel, in 1977, and only small numbers through Turkey at either season (7 Shirihai, H., R. Yosef, D. Alon, G. M. Kirwan, and R. Spaar (2000). Raptor migration in Israel and the Middle East: a summary of 30 years of field research. International Birding & Research Center in Eilat, Israel. Close ) (recorded 30 Mar–24 May at Bosphorus) (10 Üner, Ö., Boyla, K. A., Bacak, E., Birel, E., Çelikoba, İ., Dalyan, C., Tabur, E. and Yardim, Ü. (2010). Spring migration of soaring birds over the Bosphorus, Turkey, in 27727726. Sandgrouse. 32(1): 20-33. Close ); in China, ten at Beidahe in 1986, between 15 Sept and 28 Oct, was highest total in period 1986–1990 (11 Williams, M. D., G. J. Carey, D. G. Duff, and X. Weishu (1992). Autumn bird migration at Beidaihe, China, 1986–1990. Forktail 7:3–55. Close ); on SW shore of L Baikal, moves S between 4th and 15th Oct, but much further S, in Nepal, passage of all age classes observed between late Oct and early Nov (12 Collar, N. J., A. V. Andreev, S. Chan, M. J. Crosby, S. Subramanya, and J. A. Tobias, Editors (2001). Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. Close ). In spring, reaches Russian and Chinese breeding grounds in late Mar or early Apr (12 Collar, N. J., A. V. Andreev, S. Chan, M. J. Crosby, S. Subramanya, and J. A. Tobias, Editors (2001). Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. Close ). On passage through Israel generally accompanies larger numbers of A. nipalensis (through Eilat) or Clanga pomarina (through northern valleys) (13 Alon, D., B. Granit, J. Shamoun-Baranes, Y. Leshem, G. M. Kirwan, and H. Shirihai (2004). Soaring bird migration over northem Israel in autumn. British Birds 97(4):160–182. Close ). Arrives on wintering grounds in SE Asia in early Nov and remains until at least mid Mar (6 Wells, D. R. (1999). The Birds of the Thai-Malay Peninsula. Volume 1. Non-passerines. Academic Press, London, UK. Close ); in Kenya also Nov–Mar (14 Stevenson, T., and J. Fanshawe (2002). Field Guide to the Birds of East Africa: Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi. T. & A. D. Poyser, London, UK. Close ), but extreme dates in Ethiopia 2 Oct–24 Mar (15 Ash, J. S., and J. Atkins (2009). Birds of Ethiopia and Eritrea: An Atlas of Distribution. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Satellite-tracking has revealed at least some winter site faithfulness across years; of eight birds trapped in Saudi Arabia in winter, four migrated to Russia in spring, one to Kazakhstan and one to NW China, with distances between summer and wintering areas ranging between 3900 km and 5000 km (16 Meyburg, B.-U. and Meyburg, C. (2011). Asian raptor movements tracked by satellite. Phoenix. 26: 5-6. Close ). Others breeding in Kazakhstan have also been sighted in Arabia, from Kuwait in N, S to Oman and Yemen (17 Anon. (2010). Wing-tagged Eastern Imperial Eagle in Qatar. Phoenix. 26: 2. Close ). However, further E, young from L Baikal region were satellite-tracked through E Mongolia and C Inner Mongolia (China) to their wintering grounds from S China to Thailand; siblings independently used same migration flyway, but flyways differed between families (18 Ueta, M. and Rybatsev, V.V. (2001). Migration routes of four juvenile Imperial Eagles Aquila heliaca from the Baikal region of eastern Russia. Bird Conservation International. 11(2): 93-99. Close ); one juvenile wandered widely during winter period, between Yunnan (SW China), E Myanmar and N Thailand (12 Collar, N. J., A. V. Andreev, S. Chan, M. J. Crosby, S. Subramanya, and J. A. Tobias, Editors (2001). Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. Close ). In Slovakia and Hungary, adults often seem to remain at or near breeding areas, and same may be true in parts of Turkey (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ) and on Cyprus (19 Flint, P., and P. Stewart (1992). The Birds of Cyprus. An Annotated Check-list. BOU Check-list 6. Second Edition. British Ornithologists’ Union, Tring, UK. Close ), while in Arabia young birds predominate in Oman, whereas in further N in Jordan (20 Al Hasani, I.K., Azar, J.F., Nishimura, K., Amr, Z.S. and Katzner, T.E. (2012). Distribution, diet and winter ecology of the Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca in Jordan. Vert. Zool.. 62(2): 273-280. Close ) and Saudi Arabia (21 Lobley, G.R. (2007). Wintering of Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga and Eastern Imperial Eagle A. heliaca in the Arabian Peninsula. Sandgrouse. 29(2): 177- 182. Close ), adults appear equally numerous, and in Central Asia, species is recorded as far N as Kazakhstan at this season (22 Wassink, A., and G. J. Oreel (2008). Birds of Kazakhstan: new and interesting data. Dutch Birding 30(2):93–100. Close ). Vagrants recorded in various Western Palearctic countries including Poland, Finland (three records, first in 1981) (23 de Roeck, E. (1993). The status of Europe’s rarer birds of prey: Imperial Eagle. Birding World. 6(6): 239-242. Close ), Sweden (at least eight records) (23 de Roeck, E. (1993). The status of Europe’s rarer birds of prey: Imperial Eagle. Birding World. 6(6): 239-242. Close ), Norway (first seen Feb 2007) (24 Olsen, T.A. and Mjølsnes, K.R. (2009). Sjeldne fugler i Norge i 2007. Ornis Norvegica. 32: 4-41. Close ), Denmark (at least 18 records) (23 de Roeck, E. (1993). The status of Europe’s rarer birds of prey: Imperial Eagle. Birding World. 6(6): 239-242. Close ), Germany (most recently in 1991) (23 de Roeck, E. (1993). The status of Europe’s rarer birds of prey: Imperial Eagle. Birding World. 6(6): 239-242. Close ), Netherlands (Apr 2005) (25 van der Vliet, R. E., J. van der Laan, M. Berlijn, and CDNA (2006). Rare birds in the Netherlands in 2005. Dutch Birding 28(6):345–365. Close ), France (three records, all in 19th century) (23 de Roeck, E. (1993). The status of Europe’s rarer birds of prey: Imperial Eagle. Birding World. 6(6): 239-242. Close ), Italy (c. 10 records prior to 1990s) (23 de Roeck, E. (1993). The status of Europe’s rarer birds of prey: Imperial Eagle. Birding World. 6(6): 239-242. Close ), Malta and Libya (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). In sub-Saharan Africa reported W to Cameroon (Nov 1993) (26 Sørensen, U. G., J. Bech, and E. Krabbe (1996). New and unusual records of birds in Cameroon. Bulletin of the British Ornithologists’ Club 116(3):145–155. Close ), Nigeria (Nov 2001) (27 Velmala, W. and Gustafsson, R. (2003). Two new raptors for Nigeria and other raptor observations at Lake Chad. Malimbus. 25(1): 52-55. Close ) and SW Niger (Nov 2012), the latter a juvenile satellite-tracked from its breeding area in Hungary (28 van den Berg, A. B., and M. Haas (2012). WP reports. Dutch Birding 34(6):395–416. Close ).

Small to medium-sized mammals; in most areas main prey species are susliks (Citellus, Spermophilus) (29 Handrinos, G., and T. Akriotis (1997). The Birds of Greece. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ) and hamster (Cricetus cricetus). Birds (including domestic chickens) (29 Handrinos, G., and T. Akriotis (1997). The Birds of Greece. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ) generally taken in small proportions: 22% in Hungary, compared to 65% C. cricetus; nowadays main prey in Ukraine. In N Aral region, feeds mainly on rodents, especially (70–74%) great gerbils (Rhombomybs opimus), but also susliks (7–25%), reptiles (19–23%) and birds (7–15%), with insects, tortoises (Testudo), amphibians and crustacea (12 Collar, N. J., A. V. Andreev, S. Chan, M. J. Crosby, S. Subramanya, and J. A. Tobias, Editors (2001). Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. Close ) also taken, at least in some areas (29 Handrinos, G., and T. Akriotis (1997). The Birds of Greece. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ); for example, reptiles such as spiny-tailed lizards (Uromastix hardwickii), monitor lizards (Varanus spp.) and at least once a Russell’s viper (Vipera russelli) are probably more preferred in arid habitats (12 Collar, N. J., A. V. Andreev, S. Chan, M. J. Crosby, S. Subramanya, and J. A. Tobias, Editors (2001). Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. Close ). In S Urals, 27 species of vertebrates recorded, ranging in size from mice and voles to hares and foxes (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ), with more birds than mammals. In NC Kazakhstan > 150 prey species have been recorded, of which the most important are mammals, primarily marmots (Marmota bobac), susliks (Spermophilus fulvus, S. major, S. pygmeus), steppe pika (Ochotona pusilla) (30 Katzner, T.E., Bragin, E.A., Knick, S.T. and Smith, A.T. (2006). Spatial structure in the diet of imperial eagles Aquila heliaca in Kazakhstan. Journal of Avian Biology. 37(6): 594
-600. Close ), hares (Lepus spp.), foxes (Vulpes vulpes and V. corsac) (30 Katzner, T.E., Bragin, E.A., Knick, S.T. and Smith, A.T. (2006). Spatial structure in the diet of imperial eagles Aquila heliaca in Kazakhstan. Journal of Avian Biology. 37(6): 594
-600. Close ) and small mammals (Muridae), and birds including corvids (Corvus corone, C. frugilegus), Little Bustard (Tetrax tetrax), owls (Asio flammeus and A. otus) (30 Katzner, T.E., Bragin, E.A., Knick, S.T. and Smith, A.T. (2006). Spatial structure in the diet of imperial eagles Aquila heliaca in Kazakhstan. Journal of Avian Biology. 37(6): 594
-600. Close ), waterfowl and raptors (31 Katzner, T.E., Bragin, E.A., Knick, S.T. and Smith, A.T. (2005). Relationship between demographics and diet specificity of Imperial Eagles Aquila heliaca in Kazakhstan. Ibis. 147(3): 576-586. Close ); this multi-year study found that overall diet did not change from year to year, but significant among-year differences were found in use of six types of prey: harriers (Circus), mice and voles, owls, Black-billed Magpie (Pica pica), yellow suslik (Spermophilus fulvus), and foxes (30 Katzner, T.E., Bragin, E.A., Knick, S.T. and Smith, A.T. (2006). Spatial structure in the diet of imperial eagles Aquila heliaca in Kazakhstan. Journal of Avian Biology. 37(6): 594
-600. Close ). Around L Baikal, prey recorded at nests included long-tailed susliks (Spermophilus undulatus), Carrion Crows (Corvus corone), a vole (Microtus sp.), a duck (Anas sp.), steppe polecat (Mustela eversmanii) and domestic ducks and chickens (32 Fefelov, I.V. (2004). Observations on the nesting of Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca in the Kuitun-Zima steppe area, Baikal region, Russia. Forktail. 20: 145-146. Close ), with the suslik comprising c. 47–72% of prey and mouse-like rodents (e.g. Microtus gregalis, M. oeconomus, Arvicola terrestris) another c. 3–7% (12 Collar, N. J., A. V. Andreev, S. Chan, M. J. Crosby, S. Subramanya, and J. A. Tobias, Editors (2001). Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. Close ). Takes raptors up to size of Western Marsh-harrier (Circus aeruginosus) (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ) and Hen Harrier (C. cyaneus) (12 Collar, N. J., A. V. Andreev, S. Chan, M. J. Crosby, S. Subramanya, and J. A. Tobias, Editors (2001). Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. Close ), with birds probably increasingly important in better-forested habitats (12 Collar, N. J., A. V. Andreev, S. Chan, M. J. Crosby, S. Subramanya, and J. A. Tobias, Editors (2001). Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. Close ). Other avian prey recorded includes a grebe (Podiceps sp.), Bar-headed Goose (Anser indicus), Ruddy Shelduck (Tadorna ferruginea), Spot-billed Duck (Anas poecilorhyncha), young Greater Flamingo (Phoenicopterus roseus), Common Kestrel (Falco tinnunculus), Daurian Partridge (Perdix dauurica), a francolin (Francolinus sp.), Northern Lapwing (Vanellus vanellus), Common Sandpiper (Actitis hypoleucos), Rock Dove (Columba livia) and crows (Corvus spp.), some of which may have been pirated, as well as eggs and chicks of colonial waterbirds (12 Collar, N. J., A. V. Andreev, S. Chan, M. J. Crosby, S. Subramanya, and J. A. Tobias, Editors (2001). Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. Close ). Reports of predation on crabs, fish and other intertidal items remain unconfirmed (12 Collar, N. J., A. V. Andreev, S. Chan, M. J. Crosby, S. Subramanya, and J. A. Tobias, Editors (2001). Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. Close ). Carrion also eaten, especially in winter and during migration, when visits refuse tips, landfills (33 Meadows, B.S. (2011). A note on occurrence at man-made habitats of wintering Greater Spotted Aquila clanga and Eastern Imperial Eagles A. heliaca in the coastal belt of eastern Saudi Arabia. Sandgrouse. 33(2): 98-101. Close ) and slaughterhouses (34 Hamidi, N. and Musavi, S.B. (2006). Status of Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca and Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga in Hormozgan Province, southern Iran. Podoces. 1(1-2): 67-70. Close ), for example in the Middle East (35 Lobley, G.R. (2000). Dhahran: an Arabian Gulf hotspot. Sandgrouse. 22(2): 93-100. Close ); also pirates food from other raptors as large as A. rapax (12 Collar, N. J., A. V. Andreev, S. Chan, M. J. Crosby, S. Subramanya, and J. A. Tobias, Editors (2001). Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. Close ), and this may an important feeding method in Indian Subcontinent in winter (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). In winter quarters, in Jordan, diet includes 14 identified species of mammals, birds and reptiles, with large domestic animals (sheep and goats, probably consumed as carrion) predominating (53·7% of analyzed items), followed by presumably live-caught birds (26%, nine different species) and small and medium-sized mammals (19·7%, e.g. Felis sp., Paraechinus aethiopicus, Lepus capensis, Meriones crassus, Jaculus jaculus) and reptiles (0·6%) respectively (20 Al Hasani, I.K., Azar, J.F., Nishimura, K., Amr, Z.S. and Katzner, T.E. (2012). Distribution, diet and winter ecology of the Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca in Jordan. Vert. Zool.. 62(2): 273-280. Close ). Prey caught mainly on ground by perch hunting or by soaring, usually with a short stoop or dive to ground, and pair members often hunt co-operatively (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Non-territorial birds often associate with other large eagles such as Haliaeetus albicilla and Clanga clanga at wintering sites.

Mostly vocalizes during breeding season, the main call, principally given during aerial displays, being a deep, harsh, barking “owk owk...” or “kraw-kraw...”, which is repeated rapidly 8–10 times, or 13+ times in display, and is deeper and harsher than similar call of A. chrysaetos, or sometimes more croaking; also given from perch and by female when male arrives at nest with prey (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Gives soft “ko-wok, wk wk wk” in alarm at distant intruder, as well as a harsher “gek” (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Captive bird produced rising and falling trill, perhaps in alarm, although precise function unclear (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ).

In Hungary, adults appear in breeding areas in late Feb or early Mar, depending on weather conditions; laying completed by late Mar or early Apr, but in NW China season only starts in Apr (12 Collar, N. J., A. V. Andreev, S. Chan, M. J. Crosby, S. Subramanya, and J. A. Tobias, Editors (2001). Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. Close ); season in Pakistan, where no longer breeds, said to have been Nov–Apr (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ); in SE Siberia adults laying late Apr to early May (12 Collar, N. J., A. V. Andreev, S. Chan, M. J. Crosby, S. Subramanya, and J. A. Tobias, Editors (2001). Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. Close ), incubating in mid May, with young probably fledging in mid Aug (32 Fefelov, I.V. (2004). Observations on the nesting of Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca in the Kuitun-Zima steppe area, Baikal region, Russia. Forktail. 20: 145-146. Close ). Solitary. Large stick nest , constructed by both pair members (36 Harrison, C. J. O., and P. Castell (2002). Bird Nests, Eggs and Nestlings of Britain and Europe with North Africa and the Middle East. Second revised edition. HarperCollins, London, UK. Close ), usually 100–150 cm in diameter and 60–70 cm deep (exceptionally 240 cm × 180 cm) (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ); nest cup lined with green sticks, but also other materials, e.g. grass, fur, wool; almost always nests on trees , typically 4·5–25 m above ground (12 Collar, N. J., A. V. Andreev, S. Chan, M. J. Crosby, S. Subramanya, and J. A. Tobias, Editors (2001). Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. Close ), e.g. on Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis) on Cyprus (19 Flint, P., and P. Stewart (1992). The Birds of Cyprus. An Annotated Check-list. BOU Check-list 6. Second Edition. British Ornithologists’ Union, Tring, UK. Close ), Calabrian pines (P. brutia) and Quercus oaks in Greece (29 Handrinos, G., and T. Akriotis (1997). The Birds of Greece. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ) and in Pinus, Betula and Populus in Kazakhstan (37 Katzner, T. E., E. A. Bragin, S. T. Knick, and A. T. Smith (2003). Coexistence in a multispecies assemblage of eagles in Central Asia. Condor 105(3): 538–551. Close ), very rarely on ground or cliffs in Turkey (5 Kirwan, G. M., K. A. Boyla, P. Castell, B. Demirci, M. Özen, H. Welch, and T. Marlow (2008). The Birds of Turkey: The Distribution, Taxonomy and Breeding of Turkish Birds. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ) and Kazakhstan, and occasionally on low shrubs, just 2 m above ground (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). In areas of Kazakhstan shared with other eagles, e.g. A. chrysaetos, A. nipalensis and Haliaeetus albicilla, the present species generally nested further from the other species and at mean distances of c. 1·5 km from conspecifics, even in areas with well-preserved habitat and relatively high densities (37 Katzner, T. E., E. A. Bragin, S. T. Knick, and A. T. Smith (2003). Coexistence in a multispecies assemblage of eagles in Central Asia. Condor 105(3): 538–551. Close ), although population density was correlated with the degree of diet specialization (pairs with specialized diets nested closer to their neighbours) (31 Katzner, T.E., Bragin, E.A., Knick, S.T. and Smith, A.T. (2005). Relationship between demographics and diet specificity of Imperial Eagles Aquila heliaca in Kazakhstan. Ibis. 147(3): 576-586. Close ), but around L Baikal mean distance from centre of nest cluster in one territory to that in nearest territory was 17 ± 6·6 km (range 4–26 km) and pairs appeared to use areas of c. 12–15 km² for hunting around nest sites (32 Fefelov, I.V. (2004). Observations on the nesting of Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca in the Kuitun-Zima steppe area, Baikal region, Russia. Forktail. 20: 145-146. Close ). Pairs usually have 2–3 nests within a given territory, being used in different years (5 Kirwan, G. M., K. A. Boyla, P. Castell, B. Demirci, M. Özen, H. Welch, and T. Marlow (2008). The Birds of Turkey: The Distribution, Taxonomy and Breeding of Turkish Birds. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ); nests subject to frequent reuse over many years can become extremely large and other bird species may ‘co-habit’, e.g. pair of Common Kestrels (Falco tinnunculus) and multiple pairs of House (Passer domesticus) and Spanish Sparrows (P. hispaniolensis) at nest in Turkey (5 Kirwan, G. M., K. A. Boyla, P. Castell, B. Demirci, M. Özen, H. Welch, and T. Marlow (2008). The Birds of Turkey: The Distribution, Taxonomy and Breeding of Turkish Birds. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). Clutch 2–3 eggs (1–4), dull white or pale buffish, with small brown, purple or grey markings, mean size 73 mm × 57 mm, laid at two - or -three-day intervals (36 Harrison, C. J. O., and P. Castell (2002). Bird Nests, Eggs and Nestlings of Britain and Europe with North Africa and the Middle East. Second revised edition. HarperCollins, London, UK. Close ); incubation 43–45 days, mainly by female, provisioned by male, starting with first egg (36 Harrison, C. J. O., and P. Castell (2002). Bird Nests, Eggs and Nestlings of Britain and Europe with North Africa and the Middle East. Second revised edition. HarperCollins, London, UK. Close ); chicks have white down , with cere and bill edges yellow, rest of bill black and has blackish-grey eye-patch (36 Harrison, C. J. O., and P. Castell (2002). Bird Nests, Eggs and Nestlings of Britain and Europe with North Africa and the Middle East. Second revised edition. HarperCollins, London, UK. Close ); fledging 65–77 days, but young may remain with adults throughout winter (36 Harrison, C. J. O., and P. Castell (2002). Bird Nests, Eggs and Nestlings of Britain and Europe with North Africa and the Middle East. Second revised edition. HarperCollins, London, UK. Close ). However, fledglings usually disperse more rapidly than those of A. adalberti, leaving the natal area after c. 4 weeks (38 Meyburg, B.-U., Haraszthy, L., Meyburg, C. and Viszló, L. (1995). Satelliten- und Bodentelemetrie bei einem jungen Kaiseradler Aquila heliaca: Familienauflösung und Dispersion. Vogelwelt. 116(2): 153-157. Close ). Although 2–3 eggs may hatch, at least in Europe usually only chick survives (5 Kirwan, G. M., K. A. Boyla, P. Castell, B. Demirci, M. Özen, H. Welch, and T. Marlow (2008). The Birds of Turkey: The Distribution, Taxonomy and Breeding of Turkish Birds. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ). In Kazakhstan, pre-adults and non-breeders may gather into large and dynamic roosts, sometimes numbering almost 300 birds (39 Rudnick, J.A., Katzner, T.E., Bragin, E.A. and DeWoody, J.A. (2008). A non-invasive genetic evaluation of population size, natal philopatry, and roosting behavior of non-breeding eastern imperial eagles (Aquila heliaca) in central Asia. Conservation Genetics. 9: 667-676. Close ). Sexual maturity before adult plumage acquired at 5–6 years; pairs with both partners in subadult plumage have successfully reared young. Longevity 21 years in captivity; record of 56 years in captivity not confirmed; another case of a bird, first held in captivity for several years, later free living for 55 years, but equally unconfirmed. Breeding success: in Slovakia, 1·6 young per successful brood, or 0·76 young per pair per year (similiarly 0·7 in Kazakhstan) (40 Rudnick, J. A., T. E. Katzner, E. A. Bragin, O. E. Rhodes Jr., and J. A. Dewoody (2005). Using naturally shed feathers for individual identification, genetic parentage analyses, and population monitoring in an endangered Eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca) population from Kazakhstan. Molecular Ecology 14: 2959–2967. Close ); in Hungary 1·5 young per successful brood, but 36% of breeding attempts unsuccessful. Adult survivorship in NC Kazakhstan is 84%, an unusually low figure among raptors and perhaps indicative of legacy of habitat degradation, human over-exploitation, or low nesting site fidelity (40 Rudnick, J. A., T. E. Katzner, E. A. Bragin, O. E. Rhodes Jr., and J. A. Dewoody (2005). Using naturally shed feathers for individual identification, genetic parentage analyses, and population monitoring in an endangered Eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca) population from Kazakhstan. Molecular Ecology 14: 2959–2967. Close ).

VULNERABLE. CITES I. Legally protected in Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Croatia, Georgia, Greece, Hungary, Romania, Slovakia, Turkey and Ukraine. Overall, population most recently estimated by BirdLife International at 2500–9999 mature individuals within huge range of 8,250,000 km². Rapid decline in Europe (and probably Asia) since World War II; formerly very common in many areas, e.g. 19 occupied eyries in 1000 km² near Sofia (Bulgaria). Until recently, only in Slovakia and Hungary was species well protected and increasing, aided in part by provision of artificial nest-sites (23 de Roeck, E. (1993). The status of Europe’s rarer birds of prey: Imperial Eagle. Birding World. 6(6): 239-242. Close ), although species started to recolonize Austria in 1989 (where lost as a breeder after 1810) (23 de Roeck, E. (1993). The status of Europe’s rarer birds of prey: Imperial Eagle. Birding World. 6(6): 239-242. Close ) and even more recently the Czech Republic (41 Koleček, J., Reif, J., Šťastný, K. and Bejček, V. (2010). Changes in bird distribution in a Central European country between 1985–1989 and 291911–291913. Journal of Ornithology. 151(4): 923–932. Close ) (the latter the result of targeted conservation efforts) (42 Reif, J., K. Šťastný, and V. Bejček (2010). Contrasting effects of climatic and habitat changes on birds with northern range limits in central Europe as revealed by an analysis of breeding bird distribution in the Czech Republic. Acta Ornithologica 45(1):83–90. Close ). As recently as early 1990s, European population thought to be just c. 350 pairs as follows: 30–35 in Slovakia; 35–40 in Hungary ; ten in Serbia; four in Macedonia; 0–2 in Greece (where finally lost as a breeder in 1993) (29 Handrinos, G., and T. Akriotis (1997). The Birds of Greece. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ); 15–20 in Bulgaria; probably few in Romania; 10–12 in Moldavia; 130–150 in European Russia; 35–40 in Ukraine; 50–150 pairs in Turkey, where formerly much more widespread (5 Kirwan, G. M., K. A. Boyla, P. Castell, B. Demirci, M. Özen, H. Welch, and T. Marlow (2008). The Birds of Turkey: The Distribution, Taxonomy and Breeding of Turkish Birds. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ); 9–11 in Georgia; 40–50 in Azerbaijan; c. 10 in Armenia. Just 1–2 pairs perhaps persist on Cyprus (19 Flint, P., and P. Stewart (1992). The Birds of Cyprus. An Annotated Check-list. BOU Check-list 6. Second Edition. British Ornithologists’ Union, Tring, UK. Close ). However, in 2011, European population thought to number 1800–2200 pairs, considerably higher than estimates of 1051–1619 pairs, in 2000, and 1110–1624 pairs, in 2008, partly due to increased survey effort. For example, in late 1990s there were > 200 pairs between E Ukraine and middle Volga R, up to 250 pairs between the lower Don and lower Volga, with much smaller numbers in the Crimea (5–7 pairs) and N Caucasus (20–30 pairs) (43 Belik, V.P., Galushin, V.M. and Vetrov, V.V. (1998). Imperial Eagle populations in Eastern Europe. P. 278 in:. Close ). Nevertheless, traditional survey methods may underestimate numbers, even of such a large and theoretically more easily detected species; at a study area in Kazakhstan, in 2004, comprehensive genetic and observational analyses determined that 414 eagles (308 non-breeders, 68 territory holders and 38 chicks) were present, which estimate was 326% larger than the 127 birds visually observed (21 non-breeders, 68 territory holders and 38 chicks) and 265% larger than the population predicted by demographic models with the same number of breeders (44 Katzner, T.E., Ivy, J.A.R., Bragin, E.A., Milner-Gulland, E.J. and DeWoody, J.A. (2011). Conservation implications of inaccurate estimation of cryptic population size. Animal Conservation. 14: 328-332. Close ). Populations in Volga region currently stable, but suspected to decline in future due to threats at breeding sites. Balkan population of 76–132 pairs is now concentrated in Bulgaria and Macedonia, and is apparently stable, while recent surveys in Azerbaijan found relatively high densities on NW plains, estimating 50–60 pairs within a 6000 km² study area, and a total population size of 50–150 pairs. Perhaps formerly bred in Lebanon (45 Ramadan-Jaradi, G., and M. Ramadan-Jaradi (1999). An updated checklist of the birds of Lebanon. Sandgrouse 21(2):132–170. Close ). Larger numbers in Asia, although lost as breeder in Afghanistan, Pakistan (1 Ferguson-Lees, J., and D. A. Christie (2001). Raptors of the World. Christopher Helm, London, UK. Close ) and India (one old record from Haryana) (12 Collar, N. J., A. V. Andreev, S. Chan, M. J. Crosby, S. Subramanya, and J. A. Tobias, Editors (2001). Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. Close ), with population in Kazakhstan estimated at 750–800 pairs in late 1990s (of which 25–34 nesting pairs in Naurzum Zapovednik) (37 Katzner, T. E., E. A. Bragin, S. T. Knick, and A. T. Smith (2003). Coexistence in a multispecies assemblage of eagles in Central Asia. Condor 105(3): 538–551. Close ), but more recently perhaps 3500–4000 pairs; estimated total for Asian part of former USSR as low as 800–1200 pairs. Of these, the Baikal population showed a steep and perhaps accelerating decline in numbers, between 1950 to 2005 in the Irkutsk region (W of Baikal) from 300 to 25–30 pairs (46 Rybatsev, V.V. and Katzner, T.E. (2007). Severe declines of Eastern Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca populations in the Baikal region, Russia: a modern and historical perspective. Bird Conservation International. 17(3): 197-209. Close ), while in 1999 Baikal population was c. 70–90 pairs (compared to 250–300 pairs in 1950s and 150–200 pairs in early 1980s) (32 Fefelov, I.V. (2004). Observations on the nesting of Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca in the Kuitun-Zima steppe area, Baikal region, Russia. Forktail. 20: 145-146. Close ), with 270–390 pairs in Siberia as a whole (18 Ueta, M. and Rybatsev, V.V. (2001). Migration routes of four juvenile Imperial Eagles Aquila heliaca from the Baikal region of eastern Russia. Bird Conservation International. 11(2): 93-99. Close ). Still breeds relatively widely in L Baikal region, dramatic decline in numbers is thought to be largely due to ploughing of steppes thereby reducing availability of Daurian suslik (Citellus dauricus), the species’ main prey in this region, and due to removal of large trees required for nesting (47 Tebb, G., and A. Ranner (2002). New significant bird records from Buryatia, Russia. Forktail 18:101–105. Close ). Other problems throughout range include: shooting, especially of young birds, in many areas, most intensively in Syria and Kuwait (48 Woodhouse, A. and Evans, L.G.R. (2011). The slaughter of wild birds in Kuwait continues. Sandgrouse. 33(1): 61-62. Close ); trapping for trade (Jordan (20 Al Hasani, I.K., Azar, J.F., Nishimura, K., Amr, Z.S. and Katzner, T.E. (2012). Distribution, diet and winter ecology of the Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca in Jordan. Vert. Zool.. 62(2): 273-280. Close ), Kuwait) (49 AI-Sirhan, A. R., and O. Al-Bathali (2011). The wild bird trade in the Kuwait bird market. Sandgrouse 33(1): 63–65. Close ); poisoning, intended for wolves and foxes; removal of young from nest, for zoos and other raptor keepers; habitat alteration, especially agricultural intensification (a significant factor in countries such as Kazakhstan (50 Sánchez-Zapata, J.A., Carrete, M., Gravilov, A., Sklyarenko, S., Ceballos, O., Donázar, J.A. and Hiraldo, F. (2003). Land use changes and raptor conservation in steppe habitats of eastern Kazakhstan. Biological Conservation. 111: 71-77. Close ), but also on wintering grounds) (51 Smallie, J. and Virani, M.Z. (2010). A preliminary assessment of the potential risks from electrical infrastructure to large birds in Kenya. Scopus. 30(1): 32-39. Close ); mortality through electrocution or injury caused by collisions with power lines (mitigation efforts are underway in some areas, e.g. Slovakia) (52 Antal, M. (2010). Policy measures to address bird interactions with power lines – a comparative case study of four countries. Ostrich. 81(3): 217-223. Close ). International working group for species has been formed, and three meetings held in Hungary. Conservation Action Plan for European population published in 1996 and implementation reviewed in 2010, while Regional Action Plans have been published for Balkans and for Southern Caucasus; management guidelines for Hungary published in 2005 and are under preparation for Slovakia.